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Exam Cards - Topic 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the two main forms of cardiovascular disease?

A

Coronary heart disease and strokes.

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2
Q

What is the main feature of a double circulatory system and what is the advantage of it?

A

Blood travels through the heart twice in a single cycle which gives it enough pressure to travel around the body.

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3
Q

Which types of animals have double circulatory systems?

A

Mammals and birds.

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4
Q

Why is water a polar molecule?

A

It has an unevenly distributed electrical charge; the oxygen atom has a slightly negative charge while the hydrogen molecules have a slightly positive charge.

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5
Q

Why do ionic molecules dissolve easily in water?

A

The negative ions are attracted to the positive ends of the water molecule and the positive ions are attracted to the negative ends, causing the ions to become hydrated (surrounded by water molecules).

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6
Q

Through which blood vessels does deoxygenated blood enter the heart?

A

The superior and inferior vena cava.

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7
Q

What blood vessel delivers deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs?

A

Pulmonary artery.

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8
Q

Which blood vessel delivers oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart?

A

Pulmonary vein.

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9
Q

Which blood vessel sends oxygenated blood to the rest of the body?

A

The aorta.

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10
Q

What are the main features of arteries?

A

Narrow lumen, thicker walls, no valves, and more collagen, elastic fibres and smooth muscle.

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11
Q

What are the main features of veins?

A

Wide lumen, thinner walls, contains valves, and has less collagen, elastic fibres and smooth muscle.

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12
Q

What is the endothelium that lines blood vessels made of?

A

Epithelial cells.

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13
Q

What is systole?

A

The contraction of heart muscles.

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14
Q

What is diastole?

A

The relaxation of heart muscles.

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15
Q

What is the purpose of valves in veins?

A

To prevent the backflow of blood.

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16
Q

Which vessels provide the heart muscles with blood?

A

Coronary arteries.

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17
Q

Outline what happens during atrial systole.

A

Blood returns to the heart and fills the atrium. The force of the blood opens the atrioventricular valves and the walls of the atrium contract, forcing the blood through to the ventricle.

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18
Q

Outline what happens during ventricular systole.

A

Once blood flows into the ventricle from the atrium, the walls of the ventricle contract from the base upwards to force the blood out through the arteries. The force of the blood against the atrioventricular valves causes them to close so blood doesn’t flow back into the atria.

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19
Q

Outline what happens during diastole.

A

The atria and ventricle walls relax. This causes the pressure in the atria and ventricles to be lowered, drawing blood into the atria.

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20
Q

What parts of the body do cardiovascular diseases affect?

A

The heart and circulatory system.

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21
Q

What is atherosclerosis?

A

A disease process that leads to coronary heart disease or a stroke. It is when fatty deposits either block an artery directly, or increase its chance of being blocked by a blood clot.

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22
Q

Outline what happens during atherosclerosis.

A
  • The endothelium of an artery is damaged
  • White blood cells move into the artery wall
  • The white blood cells accumulate chemicals such as cholesterol
  • A deposit (atheroma) builds up
  • Calcium salts and fibrous tissue also build up, forming plaque
  • The plaque narrows the artery, increasing blood pressure and causing a positive feedback response
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23
Q

Why do only arteries get atherosclerosis?

A

The blood in the arteries is under higher pressure than veins, so there is a higher risk of damage to artery walls.

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24
Q

What can damage artery walls?

A

High blood pressure and toxins from smoking.

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25
Outline the process of blood clotting.
* Blood vessel wall becomes damaged * When platelets come into contact with the damaged wall, they change from flattened discs to spheres with long projections * The cell surfaces of the platelets change, allowing them to stick to the exposed collagen in the cell wall and form a temporary platelet plug * The exposed collagen also triggers a cascade of chemical changes in the blood * The soluble plasma protein, prothrombin, is converted into the enzyme thrombin * Thrombin catalyses the conversion of the soluble plasma protein, fibrinogen, into the insoluble protein fibrin * Fibrin forms a mesh that traps blood cells to form a clot
26
What is angina, and what causes it?
Chest pain caused by a lack of oxygen reaching the heart muscle, causing it to respire anaerobically.
27
What causes a stroke?
When blood supply to the brain is partially or completely blocked.
28
What is arrhythmia?
Irregular heartbeat
29
What are the first signs of coronary heart disease?
Shortness of breath and angina.
30
What are the symptoms of a stroke?
* Numbness * Dizziness * Confusion * Slurred speech * Blurred or lost vision, usually in one eye
31
What is an aneurysm?
When part of an artery has narrowed and blood begins to build up. This causes the artery to swell and potentially (and fatally) rupture.
32
What are the risk factors for cardiovascular disease?
* High blood pressure * Obesity * High cholesterol diet * Lack of exercise * Smoking * Genetic Inheritance * Stress
33
Why does the prevalence of cardiovascular disease increase with age?
Arteries become less elastic with age, and can become more easily damaged.
34
What is hypertension?
Elevated blood pressure.
35
What is a monosaccharide?
A single sugar unit.
36
What is a disaccharide?
Two single sugar units that have combined in a condensation reaction.
37
What is a polysaccharide?
A long straight or branched chain of monosaccharides.
38
What is the general formula for a monosaccharide?
(CH2O)n
39
What is the most common number of carbon atoms in monosaccharides, and what is the name for a sugar that has that number of carbon atoms?
6 - A hexose sugar
40
What are the monosaccharides glucose, galactose, and fructose examples of?
Hexose sugars.
41
What is the bond between two glucose molecules formed by a condensation reaction.
A glycosidic bond/link.
42
Which disaccharide is formed from a glucose and fructose molecule?
Sucrose.
43
Which disaccharide is formed from two glucose molecules?
Maltose.
44
Which disaccharide is formed from galactose and glucose?
Lactose.
45
Which reaction can split the glycosidic bond between the two sugar units in a disaccharide?
Hydrolysis.
46
Which enzyme can be used to hydrolyse the lactose in milk?
Lactase.
47
What are the three main types of polysaccharides found in food?
Starch, cellulose, and glycogen.
48
Which two polysaccharides act as energy storage molecules within cells?
Starch (plants) and glycogen (animals).
49
Which two molecules is starch made up of?
Amylose and amylopectin.
50
What is amylose composed of?
A straight chain of between 200 and 5000 glucose molecules with 1,4 glycosidic bonds. The bond positions cause it to coil into a spiral shape.
51
What is amylopectin composed of?
A branched chain of glucose molecules with a 1,6 gycosidic bond for each side branch.
52
What is the structure of cellulose?
Up to 10,000 glucose molecules in a straight chain with no branches.
53
What are lipids soluble in?
Organic solvents such as ethanol, but not water.
54
What are the most common lipids that we eat?
Triglycerides.
55
What are triglycerides made of?
Three fatty acids and one glycerol molecule joined by ester bonds made by condensation reactions.
56
What is the structural formula of glycerol?
C3H8O3
57
What is the structural formula of a fatty acid?
Long hydrocarbon chain and a carboxylic acid group
58
What is the difference between a saturated and unsaturated fat?
In unsaturated fats, the hydrocarbon chains contain double bonds, whereas saturated fats contain no double bonds.
59
What is a monounsaturated fat?
A fatty acid chain with only one double bond.
60
What is a polyunsaturated fat?
A fatty acid chain with two or more double bonds.
61
What are phospholipids?
Molecules that are similar to triglycerides, but one of the fatty acids is replaced by a negatively charged phosphate group.
62
What is basal metabolic rate (BMR)?
The rate at which the body uses energy while at rest to maintain vital functions such as breathing and keeping warm.
63
Which individuals is basal metabolic rate higher in?
* Males * Heavier people * Younger people * More active people
64
What does BMI stand for?
Body mass index.
65
How is BMI calculated?
body mass (kg)/height2 (m2)
66
Why can obesity increase the risk of cardiovascular disease?
It can raise blood pressure and increase blood lipid levels.
67
How is cholesterol transported in the bloodstream?
Insoluble cholesterol combines with proteins to form soluble lipoproteins.
68
What are the two types of major transport lipoproteins?
High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) and low-density lipoproteins (LDLs).
69
Describe LDLs.
The main cholesterol carriers in the blood. they are formed when triglycerides from saturated fats combine with cholesterol and protein membranes.
70
Describe HDLs.
Formed when triglycerides from unsaturated fats combine with cholesterol and protein membranes. They have a higher percentage of protein than LDLs, making them denser.
71
What is the problem with having excess LDLs in the bloodstream?
They can de-sensitise membrane receptors, resulting in high blood cholesterol levels.
72
How do HDLs help lower blood cholesterol levels?
They transport cholesterol from body tissues to the liver, where it is broken down.
73
How does smoking affect the cardiovascular system?
* The haemoglobin in red blood cells carries carbon dioxide from cigarette smoke instead of oxygen. This reduces oxygen supply to cells, which results in an increased heart rate in order to provide enough oxygen for cells * Nicotine can increase the production of adrenaline, causing hypertension and increasing blood pressure * Chemicals in the smoke can damage arteries, leading to atherosclerosis * Smoking has also been linked to reduced HDL levels
74
How can exercise reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease?
* It can reduce blood pressure * Helps people maintain a healthy weight * Can raise HDL cholesterol levels
75
Define apolipoproteins
The protein component of lipoproteins that helps stabilise the structure and recognising receptors for lipoprotein uptake.
76
What is Apolipoprotein A (apoA) and what do mutations in its gene cause?
The major protein in HDL which helps in moving cholesterol to the liver. Mutations in the apoA gene are associated with lower HDL levels, causing the reduced removal of cholesterol from the blood.
77
What is Apolipoprotein B (apoB) and what do mutations in its gene cause?
The main protein in LDL, which transfers cholesterol from blood to cells. Mutations in the apoB gene result in higher levels of LDLs in the blood.
78
What is Apolipoprotein E (apoE) and what does the E4 allele of the apoE gene cause?
A major component of HDLs and very low density lipoproteins (VLDLs) which are also involved with removing excess cholesterol from the blood to the liver. The E4 allele of the apoE gene slows the removal of cholesterol from the blood.
79
What do antioxidants do in the body?
They provide hydrogen atoms that stabilise unstable radicals within the body. They also reduce the tendency of platelets sticking together.
80
How do high-salt diets contribute to cardiovascular disease?
It elevates blood pressure.
81
How can stress lead to cardiovascular diseases?
Stress increases the production of adrenaline, which causes vasoconstriction, which raises blood pressure.
82
How does excessive consumption of alcohol increase the risk of cardiovascular disease?
* Can raise blood pressure * Can cause obesity * Can cause direct tissue damage of the liver, brain, or heart
83
What are ACE inhibitors?
ACE inhibitors (angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors) are antihypertensive drugs which reduce the synthesis of angiotensin II, an enzyme which causes vasoconstriction.
84
What are the potential side-effects of ACE inhibitors?
* Dizziness * Abnormal heart rhythms * Reduction of kidney function
85
What are calcium channel blockers?
Antihypertensive drugs which block calcium channels in the muscle cells lining the arteries. Because calcium cannot reach the muscle cells, the arteries cannot contract. This causes reduced blood pressure.
86
What are the potential side-effects of calcium channel blockers?
* headaches * dizziness * swollen ankles * abnormal heart rhythms
87
How do diuretics reduce blood pressure?
They increase the volume of urine produced by the kidney which rids the body of excess fluids and salts. This leads to a decrease in blood plasma volume and cardiac output (volume of blood expelled from the heart in a minute), which reduces blood pressure.
88
How do statins reduce blood cholesterol levels?
They inhibit an enzyme which is involved in the production of LDLs.
89
How do anti-coagulant drugs reduce the risk of a blood clot forming?
They reduce the tendency of platelets sticking together, therefore making it more difficult for blood clots to form.

Biology (8 decks)

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