Exam: chapters 9-14 Flashcards

Question

3. how did the Nazi Party gained adherents in Germany and abroad over the course of the 1920s and ’30s?

Answer 1

``` The humiliation of the Ruhr Valley, where Germans were punished for falling behind on its payments, played directly into the Nazis’ hands as they recruited resentful Germans. Germany’s erratic economy also played into Nazis’ hands. Also because fascism (Adolf Hitler’s Nazis) promises to get rid of democracy’s inefficiency, argumentation, and messiness, it’s appealing to countries undergoing the sort of trauma Germany was suffering in the late 1920s and early ’30s. The Nazis early platforms included pension funds for senior citizens and used a lot of propaganda to sway the public. Their anti-Jew agenda appealed to financers like Henry Ford. They also had a lot of hate for communists, Gypsies (Romani), Jehovah’s Witnesses, homosexuals, and disabled, all of whom they wanted exterminated and they specialized at getting others to side with them. Hitler’s message of order and violence in his Mein Kampf resonated among a critical balance of those suffering from hunger and inflation (after the Stock Market Crash of 1929) and they intimidated many others. -> Nazis’ popularity rose after the Stock Market Crash in 1929. -> Hitler became a chancellor and the Nazis constituted a plurality in the Reichstag by then. -> The German public yearned for order amidst the economic chaos of the crash (The Nazis specialty)-> Nazis claimed victory in the disputed 1933 elections and dismantled the democracy that brought them to power (elections). The Reichstag fire and response intimidated and/or brought on board many middle-class Germans otherwise skeptical of the new regime. * Nazis essentially came to power through a combination of democratic elections, media manipulation, and street-level intimidation. ```

Answer 2

The Burning of the Reichstag (Parliament building) was the key pretext for Nazis suspending republicanism (voting and civil liberties) and eradicating communists at the same time. They blamed a Dutch communist, but it is highly suspected that the Nazis did the arson themselves. Today, the term Reichstag Fire signifies a power grab whereby leaders manufacture a crisis or exploit a real one to blame opponents, distract citizens or convince citizens to surrender liberties.

Answer 3

Hitler implemented a more aggressive Keynesian strategy of stimulus spending than Franklin Roosevelt, rebuilding the country and putting people back to work- was successful. The Nazis pioneered interstate engineering. Hoped to jumpstart Germany’s economy with a car for the common fold, the Volkswagen, like Henry Ford. They excelled at pageantry, hosting orchestrated public festivals where Germans camped out and celebrated their culture. *Nazis salvaged their reputation by curbing inflation and turning around the German economy.

Answer 4

Germany showcased its rebuilt country in the 1936 Olympics.- The sports complex was magnificent by 1930s standards and the same Hindenburg balloon flew over the main stadium during opening ceremonies Nazis took full advantage by building the first substantial Olympic village, temporarily taking down anti-Semitic billboards, clearing out Gypsies (Romani), outlawing prostitution, and treating foreign journalists and athletes hospitably. Hitler hoped to use the Olympics to prove the superiority of fascist regimes and largely succeeded. Germany finished first in the overall medal count with the U.S. second. The Olympics bought Hitler time and helped camouflage the Nazis’ real intentions.

Answer 5

France and the USSR signed a mutual pact in 1935 (similar to 1892), outraging Germany, and Germany was openly violating terms of the Versailles and Locarno (pledge of peace) treaties by the mid-1930s. They made their first expansionary move in March 1936, retaking the Rhineland region ceded to France after WWI. Their next move was Hitler’s home country, where Austrian Nazis helped along a mostly bloodless takeover called the Anschluss in March 1938. Then, in October 1938, they made demands on the German-speaking Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia. Hitler took advantage of the rest of Europe’s desire for peace, knowing that he could get away with more than he would have had they not been haunted by WWI. And he took advantage of widespread anti-Semitism throughout the Western world. Western countries tightened their immigration restrictions once the going got rough in Germany. - Spanish fascists under Francisco Franco won their Civil War and alliance of fascists and Catholics won a short skirmish over social democrats in Austria (1934), setting that German-speaking country up for an easy annexation by Nazis in 1938. - Portugal cam under the rule of fascist Antonio de Oliveira - Fascist Benito Mussolini took over Italy in 1922 - Italy control Libya and Somalia in Africa - 1935: bombed Ethiopians into submission - Hitler established an alliance with Mussolini as Germany and Italy formed the Axis Powers.

Answer 6

“Remember Munich” has become a catchphrase among Hawks (someone who favors war or continuing to escalate an existing conflict as opposed to other solutions.) in almost any circumstance, meaning that problems are better thwarted early on before they get out of control later. Delay or inaction are inevitably equated with spinelessness or naiveté in this line of thinking — an old idea that just had a name after 1938. However, that does not mean that it would have been a good idea for the Western Allies to stop Hitler in 1938. The Munich Pact was a naïve attempt at appeasement (and procrastination), but none of the Allies had large armies in 1938 and weren’t prepared to go to war. If they’d challenged Hitler then, they might have lost the war or won a more difficult victory. Even if Churchill and Kennan were right about Munich being a mistake, it doesn’t follow that it’s smart to put “boots on the ground” as quickly as possible in every future scenario, as both men attested to. The Munich Pact also delayed Germany’s attack on the rest of Czechoslovakia, which Hitler later regretted. The classic appeasement-was-a-mistake interpretation of Munich isn’t necessarily wrong, but it needs to be predicated on this angle: that the Allies were stronger in relation to Germany proportionally in 1938 than they were by 1939-40.

Answer 7

This Lesson of Munich, i.e., that appeasement only feeds the aggressor’s appetite, is worth considering for sure but has also narrowed American options ever since in areas like Vietnam and Iraq, leading to knee-jerk, escalate-first-and-ask-questions-later strategies haunted by what critics call the “ghost of Munich.” It also contributed to western countries forming NATO during the Cold War to oppose the Soviet Union.

Answer 8

The Axis Powers of Germany and Italy signed the Tripartite Pact with their imperial counterpart Japan in September 1940. Germany and Japan reinforced each other because Japan coveted the European-held colonies of Asia. Germany kept Britain, France, and the Netherlands at bay in Europe, making it impossible for them to defend their territories in Shanghai, British Hong Kong and Singapore, French Indochina (Vietnam), and the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia). Also, they both had imperialistic dictatorships.

Answer 9

The Germans dropped bombs on Britian. The Royal Air Force (RAF) stood as the last line of defense for the Free World. Two planes key for Britain’s survival were Hawker Hurricane and Spitfire fighters. While German planes performed better, the British provered their superiority in manufacturing quantity (The RAF and Royal Observer Corps’ rudimentary but robust communication network, repaired itself quickly.). German engineering set the pace, but they valued quality over quantity whereas the RAF ramped up production, replacing their lost planes. American and British factories made weapons ’round the clock in three shifts, seven days a week, whereas German plants, with its able-bodied population spread thin and slaves on many assembly lines, ran one eight-hour shift on weekdays. Also, the Germans had to concern themselves with running out of gas as well, while the Brits were already fighting in their home territory at the Battle of Britain. In short, without air superiority, Germany had no hope of a land invasion so this proposed “Operation Sea Lion '' never happened. Germany also underestimated the RAF, their capacity to damage their radar stations, and the British learned to ham the German pilots’ navigation systems. Also Britain had moral support from radio, posters, and other media. Also, Churchill (Britain’s leader) symbolized fortitude and resilience at a vulnerable time and gave very inspiring speeches. *together, Britain’s pilots, radar operators, munitions makers, and politicians held off the Luftwaffe.*

Answer 10

Hitler lost his temper and had Göring put too much focus on the civilian attacks, losing momentum in their campaign to destroy airfields and ports. On land, Citizens scurried into subways and shelters during the bombing raids. Unlike Paris or Berlin, London had a vulnerable approach from the English Channel by enemy pilots who merely had to follow the Thames River west a few miles inland. Eventually, the British built offshore radar-operated anti-aircraft batteries in the Thames Estuary and North Sea to block that route. Brits also got moral support over the radio.

Answer 11

Due to voters’ skepticism about WWI, the forenamed Congressional Nye Committee outlawed American intervention in foreign wars in 1935. In 1937, they even went so far as to outlaw American aid to any allies at war, with the third round of Neutrality Acts. President Franklin Roosevelt on the other hand, was more anxious to oppose Hitler than most of Congress and the American public in the late 1930s. He saw the dangerous position the United States and the rest of the world in and worked in secret to convince the rest of the US to join in the war. Woodrow Wilson’s stance in the Versailles peace conference also greatly differed from the Nye Committee and Neutrality Act legislation because like FDR, he preferred international intervention over isolationism. Wilson’s intentions were directed more at avoiding war than Roosevelt’s, but wanted to carry out their ideas on a global scale, while the rest of the majority wanted to focus solely on what was best for the US. - America very isolationist, 75% opposed intervention in 1940 - FDR maneuvered around w/ Lend-Lease and Cash-And-Carry: sending equipment to England under promise of returning someday and selling weapon at shore for cash or gold if not German or Japanese - Didn't want Royal Navy in hands of Germany - Atlantic Charter: protect democracy and promote liberal ideas after war, between FDR and Churchill

Answer 12

The US helped China fight Japan. During the Moscow Trials of 1936-38 concerning a plot to overthrow Joseph Stalin, it came to light that Japan was working with the rebels and hoped to sign an oil deal with the new Russian leaders. That would relieve them of their dependence on American oil. *While those revelations didn’t do much to disrupt relations initially, oil was indeed a key cause of war between Japan and the U.S.*

Answer 13

Japanese expansion into Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia) threatened American-held oil interests in nearby Indonesia, then known as the Dutch East Indies. The US had already cut Japan off from the aeronautical equipment in the “moral embargoes” after their China invasion. When Japan invaded northern Indochina and signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany in September 1940, the U.S. cut off aviation fuel and steel/scrap metal to both countries and froze Japanese assets in American banks. When Japan invaded southern Indochina in July 1941, American oil companies felt they had seen enough. FDR embargoed all crude oil unless Japan retreated out of Southeast Asia and China.-> Japan claimed they considered this an act of war. They were running out of fuel, the lifeblood of modern industry and militaries. They either had to give up their imperial ambitions and retreat, or go for broke and try to knock the U.S. and Britain out of the Pacific so they could take the oil for themselves.

Answer 14

The Navy ran their own mock raid on Pearl Harbor in 1932 (on a Sunday morning, no less) with biplanes taking off from aircraft carriers and dropping flares and flour sacks. Also, FDR moved the main fleet to Pearl Harbor from San Diego in 1940 to discourage Japanese aggression, but the opposite happened.

Answer 15

The US should have seen the attack coming because Peru’s Japanese ambassador even told American Ambassador Joseph Grew that he overheard leaders discussing a sneak attack on Pearl Harbor that year. Alslo, Teddy Roosevelt predicted that the Japanese would attack Pearl Harbor (were running out of fuel, the lifeblood of modern industry and militaries. They either had to give up their imperial ambitions and retreat, or go for broke and try to knock the U.S. and Britain out of the Pacific so they could take the oil for themselves.). The U.S. learned that the main Japanese fleet had left Tokyo in late November but didn’t know where they were.-> some ships left Pearl Harbor to defend the Philippines. There were clues of an impending attack and mistakes made in failing to notify Hawaii as quickly as officials might have. However, there is no persuasive evidence that FDR knew about the location ahead of time and let it happen. American Intelligence also had at least partially decoded a message from the Japanese navy to their embassy in Honolulu from September 24th, 1941 requesting information on Pearl Harbor ship location and geography. Additionally, British agent Dušan Popov tried to warn FBI director J. Edgar Hoover that they had picked up on rumors of a Pearl Harbor attack and that the Japanese were asking Germany if they knew how the depth of Pearl Harbor compared to Taranto and if Pearl had anti-torpedo nets. Officials in Washington withheld vital intel to avoid revealing that they’d broken a Japanese code (JN-25 but not JN-25b), including information that Japanese were spying on Pearl Harbor and suggesting that they were planning an attack if negotiations didn’t improve by November 25th. Communication was also poor between the Army and Navy and Japanese diplomats indicated to the Americans and British beforehand that war was imminent

Answer 16

The Roberts Commission scapegoated the leaders in charge of Pearl Harbor: Pacific Fleet Commander Husband Kimmel and Army Field Commander Walter Short, finding them guilty of dereliction of duty. The US was not fair in blaming Kimmel or Short because the information they needed came in on the night of December 6th-7th indicating an attack and, by early morning, even the location. By the time everyone (Stark, FDR, and Army Chief of Staff George Marshall) pieced the cobbled messages together, figured out what was going on, and transcribed each other’s messy handwriting, they sent a telegram via Western Union that ended up delivered by bicycle courier to Kimmel EIGHT HOURS AFTER THE ATTACK. It wasn’t even marked priority. The blame that besmirched Kimmel and Short’s reputations should’ve been shared by their superiors.

Answer 17

Because the Western Allies focused more on punishing Germany after WWI and less on helping the region recover and because of isolationist policies, no one really stepped into a leadership role allowing imperial Japan, Italy and Nazi Germany to fill the position and take territory. The League of Nations allowed them to get away with their actions for a while.

Answer 18

President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) and Army Chief of Staff George Marshall had to lead two wars simultaneously. Should America fight both at the same time? If not, which first? The U.S. fought both wars at once, in the process growing their military. They started by mainly trying to defend American territory in the Pacific rather than going on the offensive.

Answer 19

The US didn’t attack Germany or Japan directly in 1942 because the American public put a higher priority on fighting Japan who, unlike Germany, had attacked them, but FDR emphasized keeping Britain afloat and opening up Atlantic shipping lanes (couldn't decide which to prioritize). American planners saw Germany as a bigger long-term potential threat to the U.S. than Japan, and England as a sort of giant stationary aircraft carrier from which the U.S. and Britain could bomb Germany. Also, the continental U.S. didn’t seem imminently threatened for the time being. Additionally, even though the Pentagon wanted to invade German-held France and move toward Germany on the ground, Churchill didn’t want a rerun of the previous war with its stalemated Western Front and argued that a failed offensive in France would lose the war. Churchill favored fighting Germany in North Africa first to protect Middle Eastern oil and FDR went along with him.

Answer 20

- Partly to pique public interest and partly to inflict damage, the U.S. ran some one-way strategic bombing missions over Japan, known as the Doolittle Raids - did minimal damage but they had a large impact on the war because of Japan’s inhumane overreaction and their misunderstanding that the pilots took off from Midway- The B-25 Mitchells really took off from the USS Hornet aircraft carrier (below) and crash-landed in China, each pilot with no more on his person than an M1911 pistol, combat knife, map, and compass. - Inhumane overreaction: the Japanese tortured and slaughtered a quarter million Chinese in the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign and threatened to do likewise if the U.S. ever attacked them again. - The attacks surprised and confused Japan since medium bombers weren’t commonly thought capable of taking off from the short 500-foot runway afforded by even the largest carriers - America employed a peripheral strategy in the Pacific, painstakingly nibbling away at Japan’s vast empire from the perimeter in. - Fuel limitations- did not have a method of attacking Japan directly at first, needed to get closer - gradually retake tiny islands in the Pacific until they worked their way back to within striking range of Japan. - Island-hopping- went after the weak islands first; skipped insignificant or heavily fortified islands if there was an easier target beyond it - cleared shipping lanes for destroyers, cruisers, and AIRCRAFT CARRIERS - Simultaneous to the Central Pacific island campaign, the Army, Marines, and Navy led by Bull Halsey hop-scotched their way up the bigger islands of the Indonesian archipelago (New Guinea and Borneo) toward the Philippines under Douglas MacArthur. - Organized their forces - The U.S. coveted small islands mainly as spots to build runways on. Planes could then take off from the new airstrip to help soften up the next island. There, Marines landed on the beach while the Navy bombed the island from offshore. - Fought a harsh natural environment (humid, snakes, etc), so after securing an island their next step was to chop down palm trees and build an airstrip as quickly as possible, even though not all the Japanese were usually gone by then - The Seabees (CB’s/engineers) were very important in building all the bases, hospitals, roads, piers, tanks, etc that made the Pacific campaign possible - Working amidst snipers and the stench of rotting bodies, Seabees developed prefabricated techniques for quick construction

Answer 21

Guadalcanal: Americans, British, New Zealanders, and Australians fought the Japanese to a year-long muddled victory at Guadalcanal that won them a key airstrip, Henderson Field, and helped save Australia from a Japanese invasion. - held back Japanese expansion in the South Pacific in 1942. - The U.S. Navy inflicted enough damage on Japan’s fleet to limit their capacity the next month in another battle at Midway Island northwest of Hawaii. Midway: victory at Midway Island in June 1942 set the stage for the U.S. to start shrinking Japan’s empire - By mid-1943, the Allies had secured the connection between America and Australia. - first naval defeat of Japan’s modern history and a costly one - Four of Japan’s six carriers were gone, along with 40% of their top tier pilots - allowed the U.S. to catch up to Japan in the size of its carrier fleet - From then on, the war proceeded progressively in America’s favor

Answer 22

U.S. Intelligence was key throughout the Pacific War. It helped inform them of their enemy’s next moves (ex: at Guadalcanal and Midway), but intelligence isn’t just about intercepting messages; it’s about allowing oneself to be intercepted when it suits you. Knowing this, the US set traps for Japan in the Pacific War. Also, they used Japanese-Americans to help break Japanese codes while passing their own sensitive information among Navajo Indian Code Talkers.- Navajo was an unwritten and difficult language. This kept American forces connected and updated without the enemy knowing what was going on.

Answer 23

America’s industrial advantage over Japan grew as the war progressed because U.S. factories were never bombed and the U.S. was a larger country to begin with. The U.S. was out-producing Japan at a 15:1 ratio by war’s end. Shipyards and plants produced weapons at a staggering rate. The stimulation of industry after Pearl Harbor due to ship and plane manufacturing demands, caused the economy and population in the US to flourish. The government intervened in industry to maximize cooperation and artillery (and other war equipment) output. The US also outproduced Germany (in tanks) and the growth of industry led to Chrysler contributing parts to the atomic bomb that ended the Pacific War. Private businesses started switching to war equipment and cooperating with the government, leading to the United States out producing most of the world in war products. Chicago was a key Midwestern cog in the Arsenal of Democracy, including Albert Kahn’s highly-regarded Dodge plant that made B-29 engines and inspired similar factories in the Soviet Union. The manufacturing efficiency Ford and Knudsen pioneered in Detroit paid dividends for the Arsenal of Democracy, FDR’s famous catchphrase for wartime America, coined even before the U.S. entered the war, in 1940, especially for Detroit. The U.S. built 40% of the weapons during the war, its allies another 30%, and the Axis Powers the remaining 30%. Simply put, the United States could make planes, ships, and tanks faster than they were being destroyed, while the Axis Powers struggled to rebuild bombed-out factories, railroads, and oil refineries. This distinguishing factor was critical to the Allied victory in WWII.

Answer 24

With men being off at war many jobs opened up for women, especially with the booming industry. Women worked in transportation, agriculture, and factories (Rosie the Riveter). California was the first to build fighters on an assembly line and first to use women in the production phase. Other than in factories females also had more direct involvement in the military as nurses, spies, entertainers, pilots, and mathematicians.

Answer 25

There never was a significant Japanese threat within the 48 states that then comprised the U.S. Japan sometimes sank merchant ships off the West Coast, sparred with the Navy, and were spotted off the San Francisco coast. The Japanese weren’t inflicting much damage, just making their presence known. Most of the danger Japan was involved in was concentrated in the West. The “Battle of Los Angeles” was the deadliest night of WWII in the continental United States. At the time, Germany presented a more immediate threat to the U.S. than Japan, with their U-boats in close proximity to the East Coast and Gulf of Mexico (world’s main oil supplier). Unlike the Pacific, the Atlantic naval battle came right up to mainland American shores. Unlike the Pacific, the Atlantic naval battle came right up to mainland American shores. The U.S. lost more shipping close to its mainland than at Pearl Harbor. The Yucatan Channel, the narrow strait between Mexico and Cuba, was especially vulnerable because all Gulf traffic passed through there. Germans also brazenly patrolled the East Coast, especially when cities and FDR’s administration refused to order a blackout because they didn’t want to interrupt commerce. In the open ocean, swarms of U-boat “Wolfpacks” decimated shipping through 1942, with the Kriegsmarine winning at ~ 35:1 ratio. However, America started coming up with improvements to radar technology that helped them locate German U-boats and started taking them out more consistently. Additionally, the Allies got an upper hand against U-boats in cryptography. Also, Adolf Hitler obsessed over bombing New York City.

Answer 26

In Europe, as in Asia, the Allies executed a peripheral strategy, pushing Nazis and Italians out of North Africa and working their way up the Italian “boot” (boot-shaped peninsula). Also, when the US first arrived to help on this side of the war, they let the Soviets absorb the brunt of Nazi punishment for as long as possible (Germany was carrying out Operation Barbarossa). In the time being the American troops gained experience and training in North Africa and weakened Italy.

Answer 27

While the Allies hadn’t yet invaded German-held France or Germany, they had an advantage in Europe they lacked in Asia as they could fly round-trip bombing missions over Germany in B-17 Flying Fortresses (took off from Britain).

Answer 28

The Allies didn’t just invade German-occupied France directly at the beginning of the war because air raids were very dangerous and the Regensburg-Schweinfurt Mission convinced the Allies that the B-17’s weren’t up to the task by themselves because they didn’t have enough guns. Also, they did not want a repeat of the stationary Western Front from WWI by drawing away German troops from the Eastern front. The USSR was keeping them busy there for now and they decided going up through North Africa and Italy would be a better strategy to slowly constrict on Germany.

Answer 29

The Allies’ aerial bombardment of Germany (Operation Crossbow) crippled and slowed the German flying bomb/rocket program. Also, by reverse-engineering the German radar, they figured out how to jam their systems and this allowed Allied bombers to level the key port of Hamburg, Germany (1943). Despite the challenges and heavy casualties, bombing raids had their desired effect, as strategic bombing missions on factories, railroads, and oil refineries decimated the Nazi war machine. While Anglo-American raids failed to slow down German steel and aviation production, they disabled oil, ammunition, submarine, and truck manufacturing. Though, some argue it would’ve been more efficient to focus on bombing the electrical grid rather than factories since factories couldn’t run without power. However, these aerial attacks came at a high cost and weren’t always immediately effective. Pilot error brought on by stress and fatigue exacerbated problems and the early waves that hit their target created so much smoke and flames that the ones behind couldn’t see. While they damaged important refineries, they were rebuilt within weeks and operating at an even higher capacity. Eventually, though, the Oil Campaign raids had their desired effect in Germany, Eastern Europe, and Nazi-occupied Norway. Germany was reduced to making synthetic fuel out of coal and natural gas, and trying in vain to capture oil fields in the southern USSR’s Caucasus.

Answer 30

After Hitler failed to take Britain in the west, he turned east. Hitler broke the Nazi-Soviet pact (to not fight on the eastern front) when his troops invaded the USSR in June 1941 to eradicate communism, gain access to more oil, and give Germans more “living space.” However, the USSR was able to receive Allied aid in the form of supply shipments and Germany bogged down stopping to murder Jews wherever they went. Germany also didn’t anticipate that Soviet railroads ran on a different gauge, meaning they had to build their own track. Moreover, despite Germany’s reputation for cutting-edge engineering, around 80% of the Wehrmacht in Russia was horse-drawn cavalry. Germany couldn’t make vehicles fast enough to keep up with their vast conquered territory. Additionally, Russia’s vastness and bitter winders proved inhospitable to the over-extended, invading army. Germany kept advancing deep into Russia and got trapped. Hitler stubbornly refused to surrender, but the 130k troops still alive in late winter 1942-43 finally gave up.

Answer 31

At Casablanca and Tehran in 1943, Stalin wanted the Western Allies to open up a Western Front as quickly as possible to relieve pressure on the USSR, but they stalled. The Americans and Brits wanted to “stab Germany’s underbelly” first: North Africa, Italy, and the Balkans. The Western Allies also were not keen to repeat the Western Front from WWI. Stalin believed that the sooner the US and Britain opened a western front against Germany in France, the sooner they’d defeat Germany. However, he was slightly conflicted because he knew that the later they opened a second front, the more opportunity the Soviets would have to seize territory of their own in Europe (from Germany).- The Western Allies at the same time did not want to wait too long to allow the Soviet army to claim more territory and Stalin even toyed with the idea of taking France had the Western Allies stood pat. *They were racing to Germany*

Answer 32

“England provided the time, America provided the money, and Russia provided the blood.”- Josef Stalin was referring to Britain’s heroic defense of 1940-41 (previous chapter, Battle of Britain) as well as the victory over Germany in Egypt to bar them from access to the Suez canal (for oil) and North Africa, America’s Arsenal of Democracy (provided the money with massive industrial output), and the gruesome battles in the USSR against Germany- Russians constituted the most deaths.

Answer 33

Code-breaking helped usher in the computer age. Since phones, telegraphs, and radios were easy to tap or hear, secret codes were essential and breaking codes could give one side a big advantage if the other didn’t know it was broken. Breaking these codes required a painstaking combination of “cribbing” (educated guesses) and computer aid in trying various combinations. Also, the benefits of cracking codes encouraged people to keep improving the technology and systems they were using (electro-mechanical Bombe, binary code, etc.).

Answer 34

In 1944, the Soviets were on the move and the Western Allies finally opened a western front to invade German and end the war, rather than just bomb it. Also, with the Soviets gaining Ground on Germany in the East, they wanted to trap Germany in-between their forces and limit the amount of territory the USSR would keep after the war (race). This took a good portion of the pressure off of the Soviets in the East in their fight against the Germans. -biggest amphibious assault to date

Answer 35

The Allies kept Germany guessing as to where they’d land on the French coast. They retained an element of surprise with an elaborate ruse to convince Adolf Hitler that the Allies would attack Norway and cross at a different spot in northwest France than Normandy. The Allies prepared for months, amassing mock tanks and planes near Dover to fool Germany into thinking they’d cross the English Channel at the narrowest spot. Additionally, they had double agents (Juan Pujol) in Hitler’s ranks passing on fake intelligence to Germany. Hitler took the bait and put his best divisions along the coast near Calais and kept them there as he saw the bombings and initial Normandy landings as a diversionary tactic (believed Juan Pujol’s false info). Also, real Allied paratroopers accidentally dropped over Belgium further confused Germany on D-Day.

Answer 36

However, once the Allies gained a foothold in northern France, they were further away from Germany than they would have been had they crossed between Dover and Calais. Their journey was extremely dangerous. Of all the Allies that died in Europe, most died between D-Day and Germany’s surrender a year later. During this tortuous “hedgerow-to-hedgerow” crawl across the countryside (named because of the shrub-lined roads and fields of the French region) the British, Polish, Free French, Canadians, and Americans led by Omar Bradley, Courtney Hodges’ 1st Army and George “Blood & Guts” Patton’s 3rd Army faced numerous German counter-offensives. Also, their reconnaissance had underestimated the size of the hedges that blocked tanks and were impossible to climb.

Answer 37

As the Allies approached the German border, goings got tougher as Hitler transferred elite forces from the Eastern to Western front for the Ardennes (Forest) Counteroffensive. First an Allied Rhine Valley airborne invasion (Operation Market Garden) failed in its objective to capture the number of bridges needed to cross into Germany. Second, Hitler pushed back against the least experienced American lines in eastern Belgium and northern Luxembourg. It was a 44-day counterpunch known as the Battle of the Bulge, intended to divide British and American troops and trap Allied armies in Belgium as the Wehrmacht captured Antwerp and drove them back to the English Channel. Allied reconnaissance had missed the Wehrmacht amassing 20 divisions on the front in the Ardennes Forest. The German forces seasoned in the Russian war launched their offensive in cloudy weather to prevent air support and killed thousands of Americans over a period of weeks. Retreating American troops blew up their own fuel dumps to stall the Ardennes Counteroffensive, realizing the German plan would fail without fuel. Two factors turned the tide in the Allies favor: destroying their fuel paid off and clearer weather allowed bombers to target the stalled Germans. Germany then ran out of fighting-age troops and the Allies really only encountered their weaker forces from then on.

Answer 38

- American and British forces came across their first concentration camps as they made their way into Germany - Leaders were aware of the camps, but they shocked the military- described it as peering into the depths of Hell. - The Holocaust was the most depressing aspect of WWII and modern history in general. The Nazi Holocaust is the most unsettling instance of evil in recorded history because of the systematic and sick way it was carried out. - The Nazis reveled in the slaughter and torture in an extremely perverse way, exploring the bounds of evil - Genocide, ethnic cleansing - What’s most depressing isn’t that people like Hitler exist, but rather how many normal people followed him like sheep. - There is no rational or coherent explanation for this scale of depravity regarding anti-Semitism - The worst of the concentration camps, Auschwitz claimed more victims (1.1 million) than the combined British and American soldiers killed in WWII. - Victims: Nazis wiped out most of Europe’s Jewish population, slaughtering at least six million Jews and another three million homosexuals, Gypsies (Romani), dissident intellectuals, leftist politicians, and theologians, Freemasons, people with disabilities, Poles, Soviet POWs, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and “Swing Kids,” or Swingjuden — German youth enamored with the West, especially the sounds and styles of black-inspired American jazz (Holocaust Victims). - Each category had a special symbol and color - It is estimated that 15-20 million people died from the Holocaust - The number of facilities associated with the Holocaust has only recently come to light, exceeding 40k according to one report. - Some were factories or brothels - The Nazis accomplished nowhere near what they’d hoped. With their Generalplan Ost (Eastern Plan), they hoped to murder or enslave Eastern Europe’s entire Slavic population (31 to 45 million) to create more “living space” for Germans.

Answer 39

- Eisenhower knew that people would later deny the concentration camps existed, so he forced his way into the concentration camps to tour them, have the nearby villagers help SS officers bury the remaining dead, and film the horrific scenes.

Answer 40

The Allies took advantage of Germany’s lack of fuel and vulnerability to unopposed aerial bombardment by murdering civilians from the air more our of revenge than any constructive strategic purpose. In carpet-bombing raids over cities like Hamburg and Dresden, they dropped incendiary (flammable) bombs in sufficient numbers to create firestorms. Once engulfed, the conflagrations generated enough suction to incinerate the towns completely. Fighter pilots then strafed civilians trying to flee on outlying roads.- planned to take over Germany

Answer 41

Germany was trapped between the Soviets and Western Allies. Dwight Eisenhower let the Soviets conquer Berlin, mainly to save American lives. The Western Allies' strategy was to halt along the Elbe River and join with Soviet troops in central Germany along the Erfurt-Leipzig-Dresden axis. British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery disagreed and wanted to lead a single thrust into Berlin with Anglo-American forces under his command. But, Ike also wanted to preserve American resources for the Pacific War and Soviet troops were much closer to Berlin anyway. Eisenhower liked to move across a broad, steady front and attacking Berlin would’ve entailed Monty’s narrow thrust to get there by the time the Soviets arrived. Arriving late to the party could’ve been awkward, the American-Soviet alliance was already very delicate and he didn’t want to worsen the situation. Conquering the capital was of little strategic importance as well because Berlin’s fate had already been decided at the Yalta Conference, where the Allies agreed to divide it up into zones.

Answer 42

When American diplomats broached the idea of negotiating a truce without invading Japan, some Japanese leaders misunderstood their intentions and thought the U.S. was giving up and capitulating. At the Potsdam Conference in July 1945, the U.S. and Britain demanded Japan’s unconditional surrender, with terms including forfeiture of all overseas territories, war crimes for unusual cruelty toward POWs, and amnesty for common Japanese military personnel. Japan would retain its sovereignty, but the current leaders had to step down. Japan rejected/ignored the offer with mokusatsu (silence).. The U.S. hoped to compel Japan to surrender with an atomic bomb. - The Japanese refused to surrender after Hiroshima.

Answer 43

Three main factors prevented an earlier end to the war. First, the Japanese never reached a consensus on who would be willing to step down or even whether to continue fighting and retain foreign territory in a settlement. Second, there weren’t effective means of clear, well-translated two-way communication between the U.S. and Japan, leading to garbled messages, third-party hearsay, and misunderstandings. By going through Stalin, the Japanese were using an intermediary who wanted to delay peace until he could benefit. It’s surprising Stalin even mentioned the peace feeler at Potsdam. Third, the wheels were already in motion on the Manhattan Project and the U.S. never seriously pursued an earlier negotiated settlement. The bomb had the unstoppable force of bureaucracy behind it.- wanted to use both the uranium and plutonium bombs regardless of the broader diplomatic context, fearing that all the research would’ve been a waste of time and money without implementing them. Also, the bombs had never been tested before. Truman didn’t seem interested in pursuing the vague peace feelers that fell into the hands of American intelligence. Even when Japan finally offered to surrender the day after the Nagasaki attack (August 10th), Truman was miffed about their insistence on leaving the emperor on the throne. Others charge that Truman’s advisors wanted him to relay the message to Japan about leaving the emperor in place and he never did. It’s obvious, either way, that communications were bad between the U.S. and Japan. Japan should’ve clarified their position to Truman unequivocally since his job as Commander-in-chief was to shorten the war and win it with as few American casualties as possible. However, the wheels were already in motion to use atomic weapons before Truman took office after FDR’s death in April 1945. There's no actual document from early August showing Truman authorizing the attacks. Secretary of War Stimson and Secretary of State James Byrnes pushed for dropping the bombs and Truman went along with it. The Commander-in-chief’s role was maybe to just not interfere with what was playing out around him. - Truman also wanted to preserve American lives by avoiding a land invasion. Japanese casualties would have been enormous as well. - more Japanese would’ve likely died in that invasion than died in Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviets would have transformed Japan into a communist bulwark instead. - After the bombs were dropped he saw the true dangers of atomic weapons and was greatly saddened that so many civilians were killed. Truman’s outlook on nuclear weapons from then on were that they were “used to wipe out women and children and unarmed people, not for military use” — strong words from the man who either ordered the attacks or failed to stop them.

Answer 44

The U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey backed the testimony of some surviving Japanese leaders that Japan would’ve surrendered by November 1945 without the atomic attacks, Soviet invasion or “even if no invasion had been planned.” But that’s doubtful testimony after the fact and the allies’ report was formed without sufficient evidence. What the survey should’ve said is that Japan should have wanted to surrender that fall even without the invasion or bombs had they been unified and thinking rationally about their prospects while American and Asian lives would’ve been at risk in the meantime. All we know for sure is that, as of August, no such surrender was forthcoming. Also, American intelligence had intercepted earlier, more capitulatory messages indicating that Japan was willing to surrender as long as the U.S. left the emperor on the throne, but they came between January and May 1945, via neutral intermediaries Sweden and Portugal. These messages didn’t clearly indicate that government officials other than the emperor would step down, including the political and military leaders who’d brutalized Asia for years. The rest of the world had every right to demand their resignation. - According to William D. Leahy, the atomic attacks were unnecessary and all the U.S. had to do to end the war was simply assure Japan that the emperor would be left in place. - Eisenhower, Fleet Admiral William Halsey agreed, Brigadier General Carter Clarke

Answer 45

The beginning of the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union also played a role in the decision. When the U.S. met with Soviets at Potsdam, the Soviets signaled their willingness to open up a front against Japan. Earlier, at the Yalta Conference in February 1945, FDR wanted help against Japan. But then the U.S. feared the Soviets were getting in on the spoils at the end after the U.S. had done the heavy lifting. Moreover, bombing Japan could demonstrate the new weapon for the Soviets’ benefit, or even prevent them from taking more territory in East Asia than they already had, perhaps even Japan itself. They wanted the Soviets to know they were willing to use their atomic bombs, even on civilians.-> Stalin viewed Hiroshima and Nagasaki as affronts to the USSR. *On August 14th, Japan accepted America’s terms of unconditional surrender from the Potsdam Declaration (except for the emperor stepping down) and aerial combat continued between American Avengers and Japanese planes until then.

Answer 46

While the U.S. and Soviets were allies in WWII against their common enemy, Germany, the two countries never got along well. Communism was antithetical to free markets, as was the Soviet dictatorship to American democracy. Since the late 19th century, the U.S. considered its economy dependent on global trade and the emergence of communist countries threatened to dilute its prosperity. There was religious conflict, too, given that the U.S. was mostly religious and the USSR was at least perceived as being godless.

Answer 47

The American government was anxious to avoid the previous generation’s mistakes by not over-punishing WWII’s losers the way the Allies had Germany after WWI, even though Germany was more clearly to blame for WWII than they had been WWI. They also wanted to rebuild societies that provided a better alternative (democratic capitalism) than communism. Japan quickly became America’s biggest Pacific ally- it served as an “ideological dam” against communism. Germany’s heavy indebtedness only helped sink the world economy in the 1930s and led to Nazism. This time, the U.S. rebuilt West Germany’s economy as best it could, hoping for a strong ally in the heart of Europe, and wrote off a big chunk of the debt they still owed from the Versailles settlement of 1919. They fended off communism and built up industry, even hiring Nazi snipers to assassinate communist leaders.- Though the U.S. naturally didn’t want German industry focused on militarization. Hoover thought it was important, though, that the U.S. help rebuild Asia and Europe financially, so that the hungry and depressed people there wouldn’t turn to communism- looks more appealing in that environment, especially since communists could associate greedy capitalists with the Nazi regime who’d ruined their country. If the West didn’t come through, the Soviets would fill the vacuum. The US intervened more directly in Germany’s internal recovery after WWII than after WWI and were more focused on healing them than punishing them. Germany citizens’ overall relationship with occupying Allied forces was decent enough as well given the circumstances. They also created the United Nations alliance, but left out the USSR. Revamped the League of Nations and was intended to help everyone involved and encourage cooperation to keep future World Wars from occurring.

Answer 48

Secretary of State George C. Marshall traced Herbert Hoover’s path, meeting with many of the same people, and agreed with his proposals for rebuilding West Germany’s economy. He pushed the idea of a major European stimulus package in his Harvard commencement address of 1947. Very important document in American History, it led to years of peace and prosperity in Western Europe. The Marshall Plan passed Congress in 1948, sending $13 billion worth of grants (not loans) to Europe and Britain. They also forgave Germany’s wartime debt and similar funds aimed at Japan helped the US rebuild democratic capitalism in East Asia. In Europe, Congress offered to include aid to the Eastern Bloc as well in the Marshall Plan, knowing that the Soviets would turn it down. The Marshall Plan supported democratic capitalism but, beyond that broad framework, Europeans were left to work out the details- It did not impose an “Americanization” program but instead helped lay the foundation for decades of growth.

Answer 49

Truman hinted at the possibility of using nuclear strikes to rid the world of Soviet communism before it could pose a threat with Plan Totality, but he called it his “giant atomic bluff” to trick the Soviets into thinking the US had more nukes than they really did at the time. Instead of these plans, President Truman arrived at a compromise middle-of-the-road containment option to stop the further spread of communism while reluctantly accepting communism where it already existed. The supporters of the idea accurately theorized that communism would eventually destroy itself if the Free World could just outlast it. Containment overlapped with the Truman Doctrine that called for funneling weapons and money into key strategic areas to blunt communist expansion. Containment theory was the brainchild of two men in particular: Dean Acheson (organized NATO) in the state department and George Kennan, an American diplomat and future ambassador in Moscow. Kennan saw no hope for long-term peaceful co-existence because of the Soviets’ hostility to global capitalism and also helped implement the Marshall Plan. A new National Security Council (NSC) would work within the Executive Branch, briefing the president daily on imminent threats and coordinating between the Department of Defense, Executive Branch, intelligence, etc. The executive’s “breakfast reading” is known as the President’s Daily Brief (PDB) and includes recent information from the CIA, NSC, and, today, the Department of Homeland Security. The containment policy continued to be carried out throughout the next eight presidential administrations.

Answer 50

The Truman Doctrine initially focused on stopping communism in strategic areas like Greece, Turkey, and Iran – hoping to not let “one rotten apple spoil the barrel” as Truman put it- domino theory. By stopping communism in those places, he could lessen the potential of it spreading to other countries. Truman hoped they could influence the outcome of wars and revolutions in these areas through money and arms without sending American troops into combat, and they succeeded at first.

Answer 51

NATO was created to combat Soviet threats: among most of the Western countries, an attack on one was an attack on all, creating regional collective security (a security arrangement, political, regional, or global, in which each state in the system accepts that the security of one is the concern of all, and therefore commits to a collective response to threats to, and breaches of peace.). It committed the US to defend most of Western Europe and North America. The Soviets countered with the Warsaw Pact in 1955, operating on the same collective security principle in the Eastern Bloc as NATO in the West. Had any Western forces invaded Eastern Europe, the Soviets would have nuked America. In 1949, the Soviets tested their first atomic bomb, code-named Joe 1. Soviet spies (Klaus Fuschs, George Koval) passed on the American designs back to the USSR. When the US released information on its counter-espionage (spy mission) Venona Project in 1995 it confirmed the guilt of Julius Rosenberg (executed) using the information passed to him by David Greenglass to help the communists. However, since the U.S. didn’t want the Soviets to know they’d broken their code, they allowed several high-profile spies to walk away. Making matters worse for the US, Chinese communists led by Mao Zedong won their civil war over the American-backed Nationalist Party, the Kuomintang. *The Cold War was ramping up. The Soviets got the bomb and the largest country in the world (China) went communist in the space of a couple months.

Answer 52

As part of the National Security Council’s list of recommendations, NSC-68, the U.S. declared that it would fight communist expansion anywhere and everywhere rather than just strategic areas. They poured money into countries all over Asia, built air bases in Libya and Saudi Arabia, armed NATO in Europe, and dedicated research into a bigger bomb: the “Super” or hydrogen bomb.-> dangerous nuclear arms race - the Soviets exploded their first fusion bomb in 1953 - China tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1967

Answer 53

The Chinese Revolution and NSC-68 led to future American interventions in Korea and Vietnam. They were not critical areas to the US but Vietnam has natural resources and proximity to popular shipping lanes, while Korea is between China and America’s ally, Japan. The two nations also border China and if the US wasn’t going to invade China directly, then it resolved to prevent communism from spreading beyond its borders. The US today backs Taiwan as it would (supposedly) defend the country from a Chinese invasion. Yet, to please China once it improved relations with them in the 1970s, the US doesn’t diplomatically recognize Taiwan (One China Policy). Taiwan still claims to be the “Republic of China” and fears that if it formally declared independence, China would conquer it to put down the rebellion in a region it still considers part of the “People’s Republic of China”

Answer 54

In the Korean War, MacArthur wanted to continue fighting into China and overthrow Mao Zedong, but President Truman held him back because that exceeded the UN mandate to just secure South Korea. Truman feared that Stalin was baiting them and would’ve loved nothing better than to see the U.S. and China chew each other to bits. MacArthur wasn’t clued into this bigger context. Truman also disapproved of MacArthur’s plan to use a string of 26 atomic bombs to create an impenetrable radiation belt to fence in the communists. For Truman, “Mac” was a “pompous ass” who disrespected him. Truman then pulled rank and fired MacArthur “so there would be no doubt or confusion as to the real purpose and aim of our policy…the cause of world peace is much more important than any individual.” MacArthur’s ignorance of the bigger picture and insubordination, in effect, forced Truman to courageously commit political suicide.

Answer 55

When he campaigned in 1952, Ike (Eisenhower) promised to abandon Truman’s containment policy in favor of a more aggressive liberation policy toward communist-controlled areas. But he quickly abandoned that idea and reverted to the more moderate, containment policy (Ike stayed the course with Truman’s Containment Policy). He transformed Cold War tactics, however, by pioneering use of the new Central Intelligence Agency, or CIA. The president realized that small, secret covert operations were cheaper, nimbler, and less noisy than traditional military missions – ideal, for instance, in staging revolutionary coups d’état. In doing so, Ike blazed another new trail in Cold War policy: overthrowing democracies. At times, during the Cold War, the U.S. overthrew or at least helped overthrow socialist democracies and replace them with capitalist dictatorships.- The United States usually valued capitalism more than democracy when the two conflicted. The U.S. had about 50% of the world’s wealth and just over 6% of the world’s population. They wanted to devise a pattern of relationships to maintain that position statistically without causing harm to their national security. Also, in order to do this they’d have to refrain from pursuing unreal objectives such as human rights, the raising of living standards and democratization. However, the United States’ ultimate victory in the Cold War (1991) was favorable to fostering democracy worldwide.

Answer 56

Examples of American interests conflicting with their commitment to democracy: In the Cold War, Democracies in poorer countries commonly interfered with developed countries’ corporate profits, meaning they had to be snuffed out and replaced with dictatorships friendly to Western interests. - The U.S. mostly blocked self-determination in Latin America dating back to Teddy Roosevelt’s Corollary of 1904, and that policy continued during the Cold War. In Iran, Guatemala, the Republic of Congo, Brazil, and Chile - Other than Israel, there are no examples where the U.S. supported democracy to the detriment of its economic interests. Iran: their new democracy wanted a fairer share of oil profits than the 80/20 split under their arrangement with the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co., came before British Petroleum (BP)- Brits got 80%. However, Churchill wanted to control oil, as they did not have access to much of it domestically and needed it to fuel the internal combustion engines their military (navy) utilized. The British convinced President Eisenhower that Iran’s leader, Mohammad Mosaddegh, constituted a communist threat, but Mosaddegh wanted full Iranian control of oil, not just improved trading terms. Then the British began a blockade that hurt the Iranian economy and lowered Mosaddegh’s popularity among the military. Kermit Roosevelt led Operation Ajax, the CIA and British M16 helped overthrow Mosaddegh and elevated the Shah from being a figurehead monarch to a dictator. The U.S. got a 40% share of oil exports for their trouble and the Shah kept the oil flowing cheaply to BP in return for the money and weapons he needed to stay in power. Guatemala: their democracy wanted to boot out the United Fruit Company of Boston, that owned ⅓ of the country, and take their land back. United Fruit ran a major operation throughout Latin America and a plan to keep the company’s real estate was on President Truman’s table as early as 1951. The U.S. had supported a puppet dictatorship led by Jorge Ubico until he was overthrown in 1944 and things came to head after Eisenhower took office- his Secretary of State owned shares in United Fruit. The Secretary’s brother was CIA Director. A small group of CIA operatives and guerrilla rebels got control of the main radio station and used broadcasts to drive a wedge between the country’s army and president, Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán. The false flag coup resulted in America’s installation of dictator Carlos Castillo Armas, whose faults were many, but who kept cheap bananas flowing north. the Republic of Congo: The CIA lent support to Patrice Lumumba’s kidnapping and execution when he brought democratic socialism to that newly independent country. His election threatened profits of Belgian diamond and copper companies, so Belgians murdered him. Also, democracy in the Congo would’ve resulted in a voting black majority outnumbering white ex-colonials and that was considered unacceptable. Brazil: the U.S. backed a 1964 military coup d’état to overthrow leftist João Goulart’s presidency in favor of a right-wing military dictatorship. *Thus, while the U.S. boosted the overall cause of democracy worldwide by winning the Cold War, in doing so they overthrew the first democracy in post-colonial Africa and major democracies in the Middle East (Iran) and Latin America (Brazil).

Answer 57

Cause: President Eisenhower hoped to loan money for weapons and a dam near the source of the Nile River at Aswan, to better regulate flooding in the lower Nile Valley and boost agricultural productivity, but the deal fell through. Eisenhower learned that Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser was playing the Americans and Soviets off against each other, hoping to bid up economic and military aid. The US was also concerned that Egypt would use American weapons on their ally Israel and it angered the Secretary of State that Egypt recognized Red (communist, mainland) China while the US only recognized Taiwan. In the meantime, southern Senators expressed their concern that helping Egypt’s cotton production threatened US exports. Eisenhower retracted the loan offer leaving Nasser to the Soviets, whom Ike assumed couldn’t afford the dam’s cost. Nasser also opposed America’s attempt with the Baghdad Pact (1955-79) to build a NATO-like coalition in the Middle East with Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, and Turkey to block Soviet influence. In 1956, Egypt needed more funding and seized the all-important Suez Canal. Nasser sank ships at the canal’s entrance to block Europeans from Middle Eastern oil and planned to tax shups for passage. British shareholders dominated the joint-stock Suez Canal Company that owned and ran the canal and wanted more US aid in helping secure the important Suez Canal- Europe’s passage to the Persian Gulf and East Asia. After nearly three months of negotiation, with the U.S. both condemning Nasser’s actions but also discouraging force, the British concocted a phony war whereby Israel would attack Egypt and Britain and France would intervene to separate the combatants and protect the canal.- Eisenhower did not bail out the British like he had in Iran

Answer 58

Long-term impact: While the United Nations, not the U.S., officially ordered the French, British, and Israelis to retreat, the upshot was that the U.S. and Soviets were taking over the region from the old imperial powers. Egypt, in turn, retained control of the Suez Canal. The Suez Crisis showed how the U.S. was able to order European and Israeli allies around during the Cold War while fending off the Soviets at the same time. The conflict convinced Israel to take more territory from Egypt eleven years later. Also, Western Europeans resolved to get partly out from under American control, Great Britain and France both developed their own nuclear bombs after Suez. - Europe as a whole moved toward its common Community (1957- ), culminating in the European Union- wanted to maintain power in the modern world - Suez added the motivation of regional strength - helped re-ignite the Pan-Arab movement that traced back to World War I, when Arab countries that had been under Ottoman rule realized they’d been duped in their British alliance during the Arab Revolt. Really, they’d just been taken over by Britain and France.- The crisis renewed effort among those striving for more regional independence. - Later, as part of this ongoing pan-Arab movement, newcomers of Iraq nationalized their oil fields, meaning that they wrestled control away from Western oil companies. - The Suez Crisis fueled Arab Nationalism in the Middle East, whereby leaders like Nasser strove to get out from under Western domination - The British lost their allies in Jordan and Kuwait and their ambassador in Baghdad warned that, by colluding with Israel in the Suez Crisis, Britain had imperiled the lives of its Iraqi allies and the monarchy itself.

Answer 59

The same politicians who escalated the arms race had defense contractors pushing them to keep the government on a high military budget. The government doesn’t own the factories, they have to hire someone to build things for the military. Eisenhower feared the contractor’s influence and discussed the potential conflict of interest in his Farewell Address, warning that lobbyists seek in policy-making and used the phrase military-industrial complex to describe the interplay of defense contractors, politicians, and the Pentagon in this decision making. Danger does still persist as the military-industrial complex is prone to corruption and wary citizens should watch contractors closely. However, it is also largely why the United States helped the Allies succeed in WWII with the Arsenal of Democracy.

Answer 60

The same contractors that stand to profit from war (or the threat of war) are making “campaign donations” to the politicians in charge of making war, creating a potential conflict of interest- situation in which the concerns/aims of two different parties are incompatible. These congressmen are more likely to convince the military to get into conflicts or play up the threats of military conflicts to benefit the military contractors.

Answer 61

Two events foiled Eisenhower’s peace initiative: the downing of an American spy plane over the USSR and a communist revolution in Cuba. The CIA was planning to send a spy mission over the Soviet Union to collect information Eisenhower could use at the Paris Summit with Khrushchev (USSR’s leader). However, Eisenhower was concerned that if the mission was exposed it could tarnish his integrity in Soviet eyes and feared a downed plane being displayed in Moscow. The CIA continued with the plan though and mistakenly thought their U-2 craft flew high enough to be outside the range of Soviet radar and SAMs (surface-to-air missiles). So on May 1st (= Soviet 4th of July) the CIA instructed U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers to commit suicide with poison to avoid capture if anything went wrong, but he also had a parachute in case he went down over friendly territory. The plan was to fly all the way over the Soviet Union and land in Scandinavia, taking pictures of a new base north of Moscow. Planners didn’t anticipate a scenario where a Soviet missile would get near enough Powers’ plane to damage it and knock it out of the sky without destroying it. The Soviets had known about the U-2 all along but allowed the flights to continue because they didn’t want the US to know that they knew, or for Americans to realize how strong their radar was. However, they could not tolerate Powers buzzing Moscow during their May Day parade and shot him down with a SAM. The missile blew off both wings but the fuselage didn’t disintegrate. In the heat of the moment, Powers couldn’t get the self-destruction mechanism activated for the plane and elected not to end himself with the poison. He ejected and parachuted right into the Russians hands. An angry Khrushchev notified Eisenhower and revealed that he had known about the U-2s all along. Poor Cubans resented criminals plundering their country and were exposed to and controlled by the worst face of capitalism. The current rightist dictator Baptista was very unpopular and in 1959, communist dictator Fidel Castro (and Che Che Guevara) took over Cuba just 90 miles off the Florida coast. The USSR admired the country’s Marxist dictatorship and when the US gave Castro the cold shoulder for betraying democratic socialism, the Soviets were more than willing to aid the Cubans and establish a Soviet foothold near the US.

Answer 62

JFK continued the same containment strategy as his predecessors, but ignored Ike’s warning about the military-industrial complex.->military spending boomed. Kennedy moved missiles in range of Moscow and much of the USSR. He wanted to prove his mettle against communism and got a test when the Soviets built a wall through Berlin to stop emigration to the western (free) sector.- Kennedy considered attacking them with their nuclear weapons in return (didn’t happen) and also wanted to find ways around the Berlin conflict that avoided war. The USSR tried to compel the US, British, and French to withdraw from West Berlin, but they refused (Berlin Crisis of 1961)-> brought the Cold War factions to the brink of conflict. JFK also tried to modernize the military. Kennedy authorized a CIA invasion of Playa Giron (southern harbor, “Bay of Pigs”). However, the CIA made some mistakes in their planning and the Bay of Pigs Invasion resulted in the death or capture of all the forces in three days. The US was also caught lying about the plot to the United Nations. The U.S. swapped cash and medicine for the survivors In the meantime, the CIA’s Operation Mongoose continued to run strategic missions over Cuba, bombing railroads and factories, poisoning sugar, and engaging in other petty forms of propaganda and psychological warfare, all the while trying to kill Castro as the Mafia did the same. Mongoose was the biggest CIA operation to date but its failure bolstered Castro’s popularity and it strengthened the Soviets’ argument that the only way to protect Cuba’s sovereignty was to arm the island with missiles. The Soviets also wanted to influence communism throughout Latin America and prove to China that they were the leading force for communism. Che engineered an alliance with the USSR culminating in a November 1961 agreement for the Soviets to send 43k troops (under their command), medium-range bombers, and intermediate-range nuclear-tipped missiles.- Soviets wanted intermediate-range missiles in Cuba to counter America’s Thor Missiles in England and Jupiters in Italy and Turkey.

Answer 63

In 1962, American spy planes confirmed their fears that the Soviets were constructing launch pads in Cuba and building a base. The US also had a mole in the Kremlin that told them about the SS-4 missiles in Cuba that could reach the southeastern US and that longer-range SS-5’s that could take out the lower 48 were on the way. The U.S. felt threatened by the missiles in the same way that Soviets did by the Thors and Jupiters. The Soviet archives opened after the Cold War in 1992 where it mentions that there were 40k Soviet troops on Cuba to fight an invading force and American tactical nuclear weapons they could have seized at nearby Guantánamo, a ten-fold increase over the 4k Americans thought were there. The medium-range missiles were further along in their preparation than the CIA or ExComm realized at the time, and the Soviets had authorized their commanders to use them if invaded, with no further authorization from Moscow. The Americans also weren’t aware of four nuclear submarines moving into position and one Soviet sub nearly fired its warhead at the U.S. Navy. *Had the U.S. invaded and the Russians/Cubans retaliated, which it would have if Johnson, Reagan, or Bobby Kennedy had been president, it likely would’ve triggered World War III.*

Answer 64

Kennedy and his “ExComm” team (Executive Committee on the National Security Council) . Kennedy was in too deep against Castro to not do anything about the missiles (had already embarrassed himself previously). However, Kennedy, ignoring the criticism from many (including his ExComm staff), held out on invading Cuba right away. He instead steered the crisis toward a resolution that saved face for everyone while also saving the world. He continued to quarantine Cuba, preventing the Soviets from off-loading any more ships and allowing time for negotiation. Kennedy also explained the situation via television so that he could more immediately and reliably relay the American stance that any firing missiles would trigger a full retaliatory response on the USSR. Khrushchev drafted two letters to Washington. The first offered the US a way out by giving up on overthrowing Casto and the second demanded that the US remove its missiles in Turkey. JFK’s ExComm security advisors called for a retaliatory attack on Cuba, but Kennedy knew the invasion could wait and wanted to give diplomacy a chance to unfold. Then finally the U.S. promised to never overthrow Castro (the demands of the first letter) if the Soviets dismantled the Cuban missiles, and they complied. Operation Mongoose, the long-standing CIA attempt to take down Castro, was over. Kennedy and Khrushchev had stepped back from the brink and averted world war. The U.S. also secretly agreed to dismantle its Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Italy, after first rejecting that condition by ignoring the second letter. Again, all the ExComm advisors thought it was a bad idea, and Kennedy overrode them.- Turkish trade was the best way out of the crisis. Kennedy’s staff mislead the public by lying about the true nature of the ExComm debate — in which, truthfully, JFK alone overrode their unanimous advice on both the Cuban invasion and the Turkish trade — an important example of a leader navigating a crisis through constructive compromise rather than simply “getting tough” was lost in the history books. *Most importantly, Kennedy had wisely refrained from invading Cuba, ignoring Bobby, LBJ, ExComm and AF General Curtis “Bombs Away” LeMay. Otherwise, the U.S. might not exist anymore, at least in its current form. He worked with Khrushchev, not ExComm Americans, to stop the conflict

Exam: chapters 9-14 Flashcards

(88 cards)