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Exam One Flashcards

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1
Q 
Physiology = […]
Pathology = […]
Pharmacology = […]
A

how it works; how it break; how we fix it

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2
Q

Physiology:

A

normal functioning of living

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3
Q

Homeostasis, think […].

A

fluid balance

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4
Q

What are the 2 main compartments for the body fluid?

A

intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid

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5
Q

Intracellular fluid is […] of the total body […] volume.

A

2/3; water

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6
Q

Extracellular fluid is […]of the total body […] volume.

A

1/3; water

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7
Q

The ECF compartment consists of:

A
  1. interstitial fluid

2. blood plasma

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8
Q

Interstitial fluid is located…

A

between the cells

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9
Q

Body compartments are in a state of […].

A

chemical disequilibrium

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10
Q

Intracellular fluid composition (what is within the cytoplasm):

A

K+ and negatively charged proteins

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11
Q

Interstitial fluid composition:

A

Na+ and Cl-

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12
Q

Plasma fluid composition:

A

Na+, Cl-, proteins

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13
Q

What are some of the constraints to cellular transport mechanisms (7)?

A
  1. hydrophobicity
  2. lipid solubility
  3. charge
  4. size
  5. sphere of hydration (water molecules associated with an ion; deals with osmolality)
  6. specificity
  7. energy requiring
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14
Q

Active transport involves (2):

A
  1. vesicular transport

2. protein mediated

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15
Q

Passive transport involves (2):

A
  1. diffusion

2. protein-mediated

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16
Q

Homeostatic vs non-homeostatic feedback control (3 ea):

A

H– return to sender; oscillates at a set point; adapt until solution

NH– reinforces stimulus; sending variable farther from setpoint; stopped only by outside force

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17
Q

PFB results in…

A

increase or acceleration of the change

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18
Q

NFB results in effectors to…

A

oppose or reduce the change

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19
Q

List the 3 characteristics of FB control:

A
  1. can’t change/fix problem (adapt until solution)
  2. operational around a tolerance
  3. local control backed up by global reflex
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20
Q

Local endocrine reflex you can think of…

A

regulation of blood glucose

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21
Q

How would you get a reduction in insulin release?

A
  1. decrease in glucose; decrease in ATP leads to opening of K+ channel
  2. K+ follows change of K+ conc which is out of the cell
  3. removal of + hyperpolarizes the cell
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22
Q

How would you get an increase in insulin release?

A
  1. increase in glucose; increase in ATP leads to the closing of K+ channels
  2. K+ efflux decreases
    • depolarizes the cell activating voltage Ca2+ channels
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23
Q

What are the 2 major communication mechanisms?

A
  1. electrical

2. chemical

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24
Q

Hormone neuromodulator vs neurotransmitter:

A

hormone NM is slow while NTs are fast

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25
Neurotransmitter
chemicals secreted by neurons that diffuse across a small gap to the target cell
26
Neurohormones:
chemicals released by neurons into the blood for action at distant targets
27
Intracellularly binding signals to cytosolic or nuclear receptors triggers...
slower responses related to changes in gene activity
28
Extracellular binding of signals to membrane receptor triggers...
rapid cellular response
29
Structure: Peptides vs. steroids.
P: hydrophilic; can either be large (polypeptides) or small (AA) S: hydrophobic, small
30
Site of synthesis: Peptides vs. steroids.
P: rough ER S: smooth ER
31
How is peptide release regulated? How is steroid release regulated?
P: stored in vesicles until a signal is received S: synthesized only when needed (not stored)
32
Peptides circulate [...] while steroids [...].
freely; stick to a protein carrier
33
Specificity of peptides vs steroids.
P/S: only target cells have appropriate surface receptors
34
Peptides: bind to receptors that […] which result in […] of […] activity.
generate second messengers; modification; enzyme
35
Steroids: bind to receptors that […] by regulating […]
alter gene expression; DNA transcription
36
Timing of effect: Peptide vs steroids.
P: rapid, short-lived S: slow, long-lasting
37
Explain the steps in peptide synthesis:
1. mRNA binds AA into preprohormone chain 2. directed into the ER lumen by a signal sequence of AA 3. enzymes in ER chop off signal sequence and inactivate chain 4. prohormone passes to Golgi complex 5. secretory vesicles bud off Golgi; enzymes inside vesicles chop off prohormone into active peptides and add additional fragments
38
List the 4 types of cell surface receptors:
1. receptor channel 2. G-protein-coupled receptor 3. receptor-enzyme 4. integrin receptor
39
Peptide hormones are made as […], inactive […] that include a […] sequence, one or more […] of the hormone, and additional […] fragments.
large; preprohormone; signal; copies; peptide
40
Preprohormone = […]
signal sequence of AA + peptide fragments + 6 TRH
41
Explain how different tissues produce different steroids.
they are made in specific tissues based on the enzymes expressed in that tissue
42
Steroidogenesis pathways are...
common for ALL steroid-making tissue
43
Amine-based hormones function as both...
hormones and NT
44
Amine hormones are [...] derivatives.
tyrosine
45
Peptide hormones are released by their parent cell via...
exocytosis
46
Steroid hormones are release by their parent cell via...
simple diffusion
47
What are the two main amine hormones?
1. catecholamines | 2. thyroid hormones
48
Catecholamine vs thyroid: Synthesis and storage.
C: made in advance; stored in secretory vesicles T: made in advance; precursor stored in secretory vesicles
49
Catecholamine vs thyroid: Release from parent cell.
C: exocytosis T: transport protein
50
Catecholamine vs thyroid: Transport in the blood.
C: dissolved in plasma T: bound to carrier proteins
51
Catecholamine vs thyroid: Half-life.
C: short T: long
52
Catecholamine vs thyroid: Location of receptor.
C: cell membrane T: nucleus
53
Catecholamine vs thyroid: Response to receptor-ligand binding.
C: activation of second messenger systems T: activation of genes for transcription and translation
54
Catecholamine vs thyroid: General target response.
C: modification of existing proteins T: induction of new protein synthesis
55
Catecholamine vs thyroid: Examples.
C: epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine T: thyroxine
56
Receptors for peptides are found [...] while for steroids it's [...].
on the cell membrane; in the cytoplasm or nucleus
57
Example of peptide hormones:
parathyroid and insulin
58
Example of steroid hormones:
estrogen, androgens, cortisol
59
Receptors define [...].
target organs and tissues
60
Pathology = Pharmacology: [...]
how we fix it: dink with receptor activation
61
Epinephrine + alpha receptor (on blood vessel) = [...]
vessle constricts
62
Epinephrine + beta receptor (on blood vessel) = [...]
vessel dialates
63
Tonic control regulates physiological parameters in an [...] fashion. The signal is always present but changes in [...].
up-down; intensity
64
Tonic control: If the signal rate is decreased in a blood vessel...
the blood vessel dilates
65
Tonic control: If the signal rate is increased in a blood vessel...
the blood vessel constricts
66
Antagonistic control uses [...] signals to send a parameter in [...] directions. An example of this would be neuron control of [...].
different; opposite; heart rate
67
Heart rate: Stimulation by sympathetic nerves...
increases heart rate
68
Heart rate: Stimulation by parasympathetic nerves...
decreases heart rate
69
Antagonistic control is [...] faucet control while tonic control is [...] faucet.
dual; single
70
[...] is the control mechanism of hormone secretion.
feedback
71
The posterior pituitary:
extension of the brain that secretes neurohormones made in the hypothalamus
72
What are two neurohormones released into the blood by the posterior pituitary?
1. oxytocin 2. vasopressin (ADH) **anti-diuretic hormone
73
The anterior pituitary:
true endocrine gland that secretes 6 neurohormones made in the hypothalamus
74
The hypothalamic hormones reach the anterior pituitary through a specialized region called...
the portal system
75
Steps of neurohormone synthesis within the anterior pituitary gland:
1. neurons synthesizing NH release them into capillaries of the portal system 2. portal veins carry the NH to the anterior pituitary where they act on endocrine cells 3. endocrine cells release their peptide hormones into the second set of capillaries for distribution to the rest of the body
76
What are the 6 NH created in the anterior pituitary?
1. prolactin 2. GH 3. TSH 4. ACTH 5. LH 6. FSH
77
What are the target organs to the 6 NH created in the anterior pituitary gland?
``` prolactin = mammary gland GH = musculoskeletal system TSH = thyroid ACTH = adrenal cortex LH & FSH = ovary and testis ```
78
Which comes first: genotypic or phenotypic sex?
genotypic begins and phenotypic follows
79
T/F: Male and female embryos start with common anatomical structures.
true
80
Internal development features:
1. wolffian (M) 2. mullerian (F) 3. ducts 4. bipotential gonad
81
External development features:
1. genital 2. tubercle 3. urethral folds/groove 4. labioscrotal swelling
82
Explain the bi-potential stage of a 6-week embryo.
internal reproductive organs have the potential to develop into male or female structures
83
If female at bi-potential stage 6-week: gonadal cortex = [...] gonadal medulla = [...] wolffian duct = [...] mullerian duct = [...]
forms ovary regresses regresses (testosterone absent) becomes fallopian tube, uterus, cervix, and upper 1/2 of vagina (AMH absent)
84
If male at bi-potential stage 6-week: gonadal cortex = [...] gonadal medulla = [...] wolffian duct = [...] mullerian duct = [...]
regresses forms a testis forms epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicle (testosterone present) regresses (AMH present)
85
Female at 10 weeks:
1. gonadal cortex becomes ovary (SRY absent) | 2. wolffian duct degenerate (testosterone absent)
86
Male at 10 weeks:
1. gonad becomes testis (SRY present) | 2. mullerian duct disappears (anti-mullerian hormone present)
87
If female: genetic tubercle = [...] urethral folds and grooves = [...] labioscrotal swellings = [...]
forms clitoris form labia minors, opening of vagina and urethra labia majora
88
If male: genetic tubercle = [...] urethral folds and grooves = [...] labioscrotal swellings = [...]
forms glans penis form shaft of penis form shaft of penis and scrotum
89
The development of external genitalia is directed by [...].
DHT
90
The [...] gene directs males development.
SRY
91
SRY produces [...].
testis determining SRY protein
92
Testis-determining SRY proteins initiate the production of ...
multiple proteins that cause gonad medulla to differentiate into testis
93
Sertoli cells secret [...] while interstitial cells secrete [...].
anti-Mullerian hormone testosterone
94
Anti-Mullerian hormone is a [...]. Testosterone is a [...].
peptide; steroid
95
Testosterone controls... (2)
1. development of wolffian duct into accessory structures | 2. development of male external genitalia (DHT)
96
Anti-Mullerian hormone causes...
regression of mullerian duct
97
GnRH stands for...
gonadotropin-releasing hormone
98
LH stands for...
luteinizing hormone
99
FSH stands for...
follicle-stimulating hormone
100
Kisspeptin turns into...
GnRH
101
GnRH turns into ...
LH or FSH
102
FSH turns to ...
gamete production
103
Within the A. Pituitary...LH moves to [...] which then produces [...] needed for [...].
endocrine cells; steroid and peptide hormones; gamete production
104
Females only: [...] needed for gamete production.
LH
105
Function of LH/FSH:
1. control steroid synthesis | 2. control production of gametes
106
Each 1 spermatocyte = [...] mature sperm
4
107
T/F: Spermatocytes can not be released at any time in response to behavior signals.
false
108
Spem cell unique morphology:
1. flagellum 2. very little cytoplasm 3. specific arrangement of organelles
109
Composition of semen:
1. sperm 2. mucus 3. water 4. buffers: neutralize acidic vagina environment 5. nutrients 6. enzymes: clot semen in vagina 7. zinc 8. prostaglandins: smooth muscle contraction
110
Water in semen serves as a(n):
liquid medium
111
Final maturation of sperm happens where? What is it called?
female reproductive tract; capacitation
112
Males exhibit relatively [...] hormone control.
simple
113
The role of FSH in males:
binds FSH receptors on sertoli cells
114
FSH binding receptors on Sertoli cells causes...
1. AMH: duct regression 2. produce inhibin 3. androgen-BP: keep T in lumen
115
LH binding LH receptors on Leydig cells causes...
1. T production | 2. conversion to DHT
116
List 3 characteristics of oocyte:
1. large, non-motile, born with declining numbers 2. typical morphology except lots of cytoplasm 3. released once a month in response to hormone signal
117
Follicular Development: [...] die before birth. Only about [...] ever ovulate.
50%; 480
118
Females exhibit what 3 inter-connected cycles?
1. hormonal 2. uterine 3. follicular
119
Follicular development = [...] synthesis.
steroid
120
At what phase doing the steroid synthesis shift (follicular development)?
luteal phase
121
List the follicular phases:
1. early-mid follicular phase 2. late follicular phase and ovulation 3. early-mid luteal phase 4. late luteal phase
122
Early to mid-follicular phase: [...] levels of estrogen exert [...] to GnRH, FSH, LH. Estrogen promotes [...] secretion. [...] prevents follicles from developing.
low; negative feedback; estrogen; AMH
123
Late follicular phase and ovulation: [...] levels of estrogen plus increasing [...] causes [...] surge. FSH suppressed by [...].
rising; progesterone; LH; inhibin
124
Early to mid-luteal phase: Combined estrogen and [...] shut off FSH and [...].
progesterone; LH
125
Late luteal phase: Estrogen and progesterone [...] when corpus luteum [...]. Gonadotropins start [...] for a new cycle.
fall; dies; follicular development
126
Barriers to fertilization:
1. your decisions! 2. corona radiata 3. zona pellucida
127
Capacitated sperm release [...] from their acrosomes in order to penetrate the cells and [...] surrounding the egg.
enzymes; zona pellucida
128
List the steps of fertilization:
1. sperm membrane fuses with egg's membrane = cortical reaction 2. sperm nucleus moves into egg's cytoplasm 3. oocyte nucleus completes meiotic division 4. sperm and egg nuclei fuse to form zygote nucleus
129
What are the 3 critical reactions of fertilization?
1. acrosomal: ENZ break down cell adhesion molecules 2. cortical: cortical granules prevent polyspermy 3. complete meiosis II: forms 2nd polar body
130
``` Sex/Phenotype: XX = [...] XY = [...] XO = [...] YO = [...] ```
female male turner female nonviable
131
Chromosome: Females are [...] each cell 1 X provides [...] material.
mosaic; coded
132
Barr body:
1 inactive clump
133
Where does fertilization occur?
fallopian tubes
134
What determines sperm motility? What else is sperm dependent on?
high estrogen; seminal fluid and fluid in the female tract
135
What does P of the luteal phase do during fertilization?
decreases contractions and prepares uterus further
136
How many oocytes are present during fertilization? How long is an oocyte viable? How much sperm is present during fertilization? How long is a sperm viable?
1 oocyte that is viable for 12-24 hours 200 million sperm that is viable for 5-6 days
137
Implantation:
cupping of uterine muscle over blastocyst/embryo
138
Placenta = [...] + [...] + [...]
C; A; A chronion; amnion; amniotic fluid
139
The outer layer of the placenta is the...
chronion layer
140
The inner cell consists of...
1. you 2. amnion: makes fluid 3. allantoid: umbilical cord useless yolk sac
141
The hCG signal is used to...
1. rescue the CL | 2. drive testes for male development
142
The placenta is a source of...
glucose and blood gas, waste
143
The placenta is a hormone factory for...
1. metabolic shunt 2. breast development 3. control uterian contractility
144
hCS is involved in what 2 processes?
1. metabolic shunt | 2. lactation preparation
145
Relaxin:
hormones that helps prepare the tissues in the cervix for dilation
146
Placenta PTHrp:
hormones that calcifies fetal bones
147
Parturition ([...]): Labor initiation is [...] but this process is sustained by [...].
birth; unknown; PFL oxytocin
148
Development of breast ducts is affected by the hormone [...].
estrogen
149
Suckling stimulates [...] and the milk let-down reflex inhibits [...].
OXY; PIH
150
Removal of placenta declines ...
E/P and thus PIH
151
List the 10 methods of fertilization in the order of decreasing pregnancy rate:
1. no contraception 2. spermicides 3. abstinence during times of predicted fertility 4. female condom 5. male condom 6. diaphragm, cervical cap, sponge 7. oral contraceptive pills 8. intrauterine devices 9. contraceptive hormone implant 10. sterilization
152
GI tract vs gut:
GI tract includes your esophagus and rectum
153
What are the 4 operations of the GI tract?
1. digestion: chemical and mechanical 2. secretion: into lumen 3. absorption: lumen to ECF 4. motility: muscular contractions
154
GI motility characteristics:
1. migrating motor pattern 2. peristalsis: circular mus; move food 3. segmental contract: sm and longitudinal; mix
155
What controls the GI?
1. autonomic NS 2. enteric NS 3. local mechanical and chemical reflexes
156
GI: Short reflexes are carried out...
entirely within the wall of the gut
157
GI: Long reflexes are integrated in the [...] and can originate from either the [...] or [...].
CNS; GI tract; enteric nervous system
158
List the compartments of operations along the GI tract:
1. oral cavity and esophagus 2. stomach 3. small intestine 4. large intestine
159
What is the main job of the oral cavity/esophagus?
OC: secretory and motor E: motor
160
What controls the oral cavity?
para/sympathetic control (autonomic)
161
What cranial nerves belong to the following operations/operators of the oral cavity? Chewing: [...] Taste buds: [...] Creates bolus: [...] Swallowing: [...]
trigeminal (5th) 7th/9th 12th 9th/10th
162
Chewing increases...
SA exposure
163
Amylase and the oral cavity:
one of the chemicals released to break simple bonds
164
Esophagus: Connective tissue types,
upper 1/3 is skeletal | lower 2/3 is smooth
165
List the components of the mucosa:
1. mucosal epithelium 2. lamina propria 3. muscularis mucosae
166
Apical surface refers to...
the top layer that is exposed to the harsh environment
167
What is the cell day turnover in apical surface of the stomach
2-3
168
What is the basolateral surface?
basement membrane that is attached to the apical surface
169
Lamina propria is [...] tissue with small [...] and [...] vessels.
connective; blood; lymph
170
Muscularis mucosae:
thin layer of smooth muscle control
171
Submucosa is mostly [...] tissue that holds large [...] and [...] vessels that lead to smaller [...].
connective; blood; lymph; mucosa
172
Submucosal plexus:
1st division of the ENS that innervates mucosal layer and controls smooth muscle
173
Submucosa and sensory:
icky sensations
174
Muscular Externa is mostly [...].
muscle
175
Muscular externa layers:
1. oblique muscle 2. circular muscle 3. longitudinal muscle
176
What is in between the muscle layers in the muscular externa?
myenteric plexus
177
What are the motor operations of the muscular externa?
IF FOOD: 1. circular peristalsis 2. longitudinal: mixing
178
Serosa is a [...] membrane that is a continuation of the peritoneal. An overall [...] wrapping that holds [...] in place.
connective tissue; slippery; intestines
179
What are the 4 cell types found within the stomach?
1. G cells 2. parietal cells 3. chief cells 4. mucous cells
180
What substances are secreted by the 4 cell types found in the stomach?
1. G cells: gastrin 2. parietal cells: gastric acid and intrinsic factor 3. chief cells: pepsin and gastric lipase 4. mucous cells: mucus
181
What is the function of each secretion done by the stomach's 4 cell types?
G CELLS 1. gastrin: stimulates gastric acid secretion PARIETAL CELLS 2A. HCl: activates pepsin and kills bacteria 2B. intrinsic factor: complexes with vitamin B12 to permit absorption CHIEF CELLS 3A. pepsin: digests proteins 3B. gastric lipase: digests fats MUCOUS CELS 4. mucus: physical barrier between lumen and epithelium
182
Cephalic phase is initiated by...
sight, smell, sound, or though of food or by the presence of food in the mouth
183
Gastric phase is initiated by...
arrival of food in the stomach
184
G cells are stimulated by what 3 stimulus'?
1. AA 2. distension of the stomach 3. GRP: gastrin-releasing peptide
185
GRP:
gastrin-releasing peptide; ENS NT that mediates short neural reflexes
186
The hormone gastrin [...] intestinal motility.
increases
187
What organ stimulates parietal cells?
stomach
188
Explain the parietal cell pathway:
1. H+ from water inside the parietal cell is pumped into the stomach lumen 2. H+-K+ ATPase does this in exchange for K+ entering the cell 3. Cl- follows the electrical gradient created by H+ by moving through open Cl- channels
189
Gastric acid release by parietal cells has multiple functions that include (5):
1. release of pepsin 2. somatostatin release from D cells 3. denatures proteins to by easily digested by pepsin 4. kills bacteria/microorganisms 5. inactivates salivary amylase
190
Salivary amylase is digestion of [...] that begins at the [...] and stops at the [...].
carbohydrates; mouth; stomach
191
Paracrine secretions from the gastric mucosa include...
1. histamine 2. somatostatin 3. intrinsic factor
192
HA is a [...] signal secreted by [...].
paracrine; enterochromaffin-like cells
193
What is the primary NFB signal for gastric phase secretion? Why?
somatostatin it shuts down acid secretion directly and indirectly by decreasing gastrin/HA/pepsinogen secretion
194
How is autodigestion prevented?
mucus layer
195
Once [...] passes into the [...] intestine, the intestinal phase begins.
chyme; small
196
Majority of digestion and absorption occur in the [...] phase.
intestinal
197
What promotes intestinal motility? What inhibits it?
P: parasympathetic innervation (ACh), gastrin (G cells), CCK I: sympathetic innervation
198
What is the brush border of the intestine?
microvilli covered with membrane bound enzymes and a glycocalyx coat SA large so it deals with a lot of the absorption
199
Enterocytes transport [...] and [...]. Goblet cells secrete [...]. Lacteals transport [...] to the [...]. Crypt cells secrete [...] and [...].
nutrients; ions; mucus; most fats; lymph; ions; water
200
Before absorbed nutrients get into the systemic circulation they pass through which organ? What is done at the location?
liver filters out potentially harmful xenobiotics
201
Crypt cells secrete an [...] solution.
isotonic saline solution (NaCl)
202
The pancreas contain both types of secretory epithelium [...] and [...].
endocrine; exocrine
203
Endocrine secretions of the pancreas come from clusters of cells called [...] and include which hormones?
islets insulin and glucagon
204
Exocrine secretions of the pancreas include what?
1. digestive enzymes | 2. watery solution of sodium bicarbonate
205
What secretes the digestive enzymes within the pancreas? What secrets the NaHCO3?
acinar cells ducts
206
Most pancreatic enzymes are secreted as [...] which must be [...] upon arrival in the intestine.
zymogens; activated
207
How are zymogens activated?
cascade along the brush border enteropeptidase **intestinal enzyme that activates trypsin from trypsinogen
208
CCK sites of secretion:
duodenum and jejunum
209
Secretin sites of secretion:
duodenum and jejunum
210
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic site of secreiton:
duodenum and jejunum
211
Bicarbonate secretion into the duodenum [...] entering the stomach.
neutralizes acid
212
Bile is a nonenzymatic solution secreted from [...].
hepatocytes
213
Explain the flow of macromolecule digestion along the GI tract:
O/E: carbohydrates S: proteins Lumen SI: all Brush Border SI: carbs/proteins/nucleic acids
214
Absorption phase: The small intestine absorbs [...] from the blood through [...]. It also absorbs [...] from the lymphocytes through [...].
carbs & AA; active transport and facilitated diffusion; fats; diffusion
215
Absorption phase: The LI absorbs...
water and` minerals
216
After absorption, there's a first pass to the [...], the [...] system.
liver; haptic portal
217
What are the functions of the liver (6)?
1. glucose and fat metabolism 2. protein synthesis 3. hormone synthesis 4. urea production 5. detoxification 6. storage
218
What is stored in the liver?
1. glycogen (labile pool) 2. fats and fat-soluble vitamins 3. B12 4. Fe/Cu
219
What are the 3 energetic components of our diet?
1. carbohydrates 2. proteins 3. fats
220
What are the 3 energetic components absorbed as?
C: glucose primarily and also fructose and galactose P: AA plus small peptides F: fatty acids, triglycerides, cholesterol
221
Explain the metabolism of carbohydrates:
1. **ENERGY--used immediately for energy through aerobic pathways 2. LIPOPROTEIN--used for lipoprotein synthesis in liver 3. STORAGE--stored as glycogen in the liver/muscle 4. EXCESS--excess converted to fat and stored in adipose tissue
222
Explain fasted-stated metabolism of carbohydrates:
glycogens polymers broken down to glucose in liver and kidney or for glycolysis use
223
Explain metabolism of proteins:
1. **SYNTHESIS-- AA go to tissues for protein synthesis 2. METABOLISM-- liver for aerobic metabolism 3. EXCESS-- converted to fat and stored in adipose tissues (lipgenesis)
224
Explain fasted-state metabolism of proteins:
1. proteins broken down to AA | 2. AA deaminated in liver for ATP production or glyconeogenesis
225
Explain fat metabolism:
1. **STORAGE-- triglycerides in the liver and adipose tissue 2. cholesterol used for membrane component or steroid synthesis 3. lipoprotein/eicosanoid synthesis
226
Explain fasted-state metabolism of fats:
1. triglycerides are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol (lipolysis) 2. fatty acids used for ATP production through aerobic pathways
227
Metabolism is 2 key points:
1. some enzymes are reversible, some not | 2. some tissues do one or other process better
228
What is the priority in metabolism at a fasted state?
glucose **brain can only use glucose and ketones for energy
229
How does glucose get to the brain?
1. liver 2. adipose 3. muscles 4. brain
230
Insulin: glucagon ratios define...
relative metabolic state
231
What dominates in a fed state? In a fasted state?
F: insulin FS: glucagon
232
Alpha cells [...].
increase glucagon
233
Beta cells [...].
decrease insulin
234
Insulin facilitates movement of glucose using [...].
diffusion
235
List the steps on insulin's cellular mechanism of action:
1. insulin binds to tyrosine kinase receptor 2. IRS is phosphorylated by receptor 3. second messenger pathways alter protein synthesis and existing proteins 4. membrane transport is modified 5. cell metabolism is changed
236
Adrenal cortex secretes [...] while the adrenal medulla secretes [...].
steroid hormones; catecholamines
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Cortisol control pathway:
CRH (hypothalamus) --- ACTH --- (anterior pituitary gland) --- cortisol (adrenal cortex)
238
Biosynthesis of cortosol:
steroid synthesized from cholesterol, so it is made on demand and not stored
239
What is the target cell for the following: Thyroid hormone = [...] Parathyroid hormone = [...] Growth hormone = [...]
most cells in the body kidney, bone, intestine trophic on liver for insulin-like growth factor production; direct action on many cells
240
Thyroid hormone whole body/tissue reaction:
1. increase in oxygen consumption 2. protein catabolism (adults) anabolism (kids) 3. normal development of nervous system
241
What is the control pathway of the thyroid hormone?
TRH (hypothalamus --- TSH (anterior pituitary) --- T3 + T4 --- deiodinates in tissues to form more T3
242
Feedback regulation of thyroid hormone:
free T3 and T4 NFB on anterior pituitary and hypothalamus
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What is the control pathway of hGH?
GHRH, SOM (hypothalamus) --- growth hormone (anterior pituitary)
244
Growth hormone target cells or tissues:
trophic on liver for insulin-like growth factor production
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Whole body/tissue reaction of hGH:
1. bone and cartilage growth 2. soft tissue growth 3. increase of plasma glucose
246
Whole body/tissue reaction to PTH:
increase in plasma calcium
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Feedback regulation of PTH:
NFB by increased plasma Ca2+
248
Basic endocrin pathway:
hormone receptors --- FBL --- cellular responses
249
The adrenal cortex secretes:
1. glucocorticoids 2. sex steroids 3. aldosterone
250
Cortisol is a [...] hormone. Its secretion is controlled by the hypothalamic [...] and [...] from the pituitary.
steroid; CRH; ACTH
251
Is cortisol catabolic or anabolic?
catabolic
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Cortisol promotes what three processes?
1. gluconeogenesis (breakdown of skeletal muscles and adipose tissues) 2. Ca2+ excretion 3. suppression of the immune system
253
Hypercortisolism usually results from a [...] or therapeutic administration of the [...]. [...] disease is hyposecretion of all [...] steroids.
tumor; hormone; Addison's; adrenal
254
Thyroid hormones are made from...
tyrosine and iodine
255
Explain the process of thyroid hormone synthesis:
thyroxine (T4) is converted in target tissues to more active hormone triiodothyronine (T3)
256
Are thyroid hormones essential for life?
no but they influence metabolic rate
257
What organ secretes the growth hormone?
anterior pituitary
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Release of the growth hormone stimulates the secretion of [...] from the liver and other tissues.
insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)
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What do IGFs do?
promote bone and soft tissue growth
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Bone is composed of [...] crystals attached to a [...] support.
hydroxyapatite; collagenous
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[...] synthesize bone. [...] synthesize cartilage.
osteoblasts; chondrocytes
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Calcium acts as...
1. intracellular signal for second messenger pathways 2. exocytosis 3. muscle contraction 4. cell junctions 5. coagulation 6. neural function
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Ca2+ homeostasis balances...
1. dietary intake 2. urinary output 3. distribution among bone/cells/ECF
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Decreased plasma Ca2+ stimulates [...] secretion by the [...] glands.
parathyroid hormone (PTH); parathyroid
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PTH promotes Ca2+ [...] in the bone, renal, intestine.
resorption
266
Variables that are regulated to maintain homeostasis include:
1. temperature 2. pH 3. ion concentrations 4. oxygen 5. water
267
Dynamic steady-state:
maintaining homeostasis that is not identical in composition
268
Local control:
the simplest homeostatic control that takes places at the tissue or cell level
269
Reflex pathways can be broken down into...
1, response loops | 2. FBL
270
Regulated variables that change in a predictable manner are called [...]. Those that coincide with light/dark cycles are called [...].
biological rhythms; circadian rhythms
271
Blind study:
subjects do not know whether they are receiving treatment or placebo
272
Double-blind study:
third party removed and only knows which group is the experimental/control
273
Crossover study:
control group in the first half becomes the experimental in the second half
274
Meta-analysis:
data combines data from many studies to look for trends
275
What are the four methods of cell-to-cell communication?
1. direct cytoplasm transfer through gap junctions 2. contact-dependent signaling 3. local chemical communication 4. long distance communication
276
Gap junctions are [...] channels that connect two [...] cells. When they are open, [...] signals are pass directly from one cell to the next.
protein; adjacent; chemical/electrical
277
Contact-dependent signaling requires [...] contact between two cells.
direct
278
Local communication uses [...] signals.
paracrine
279
Paracrine signals:
chemicals that act on cells close to the cell that secreted the paracrine
280
Autocrine signals:
chemicals that act on the cell that secreted paracrine
281
Long-distance communication uses [...] molecules and [...] signals in the nervous system, and [...] in the endocrine system.
neurocrine; electrical; hormones
282
Cytokines:
regulatory peptides that control cell developments, differentiation, and the immune response
283
Cytokines serve under what control?
local and long-distance
284
Lipophilic signal molecules bind with [...] receptors, lipophobic signal molecules bind with [...] receptors.
nuclear/cytoplasmic; membrane
285
Signal transduction pathways activate [...] or [...] that create [...] molecules.
protein kinases; amplifier enzymes; second messenger
286
Singal pathways create intracellular [...] that [...] the original signal.
cascade; amplify
287
G protein-coupled adenylyl cyclase cAMP protein kinase A pathway is common for...
protein and peptide hormones
288
In the G protein-coupled phospholipase C pathway, the amplifier enzyme [...] creates 2 second messengers [...] and [...].
phospholipase C; IP3; DAG
289
IP3 causes [...] release from the intracellular stores. DAG activates [...]
Ca 2+; protein kinase C
290
Receptor enzymes activate protein kinases such as [...] or the amplifier enzyme [...]. Which produces the second messengers [...].
tyrosine kinase; guanylyl cyclase; cGMP
291
Integrin receptors...
link the extracellular matrix to the cytoskeleton
292
Calcium binds to [...] to alter enzyme activity.
calmodulin
293
Down-regulation:
cell decreases the number of receptors
294
Desensitization:
cell decreases the binding affinity of the receptors
295
Up-regulation:
increases the number of receptors for a signal
296
In reflex control pathways, who makes the decision to respond? What is done if the pathways continue?
integrating center chemical or electrical signal to target cell/tissue
297
Long-distance reflex pathways consist of what two systems?
endocrine and nervous system **also cytokines
298
What are the 4 postulates of homeostasis?
1. the nervous system plays an important role 2. parameters under tonic control 3. parameters under antagonistic control 4. chemical signals can have different effects in different tissues of the body (depends on receptor)
299
Neurol control vs endocrine control
N: faster and more specific E: long lasting and amplified
300
Which GI layer consists of immune cells?
lamina propria
301
Digestion:
chemical and mechanical breakdown into absorbable units
302
Absorption:
transfer of substances from the lumen of the GI tract to the ECF
303
Motility:
movement of material through the GI tract
304
Secretion:
transfer of fluid and electrolytes from ECF to lumen or the release of substances from cells
305
About [...]L of the fluid per day enters the GI tract through the mouth. Another [...] L of water, ions, and proteins are secreted by the body. [...] is reabsorbed to maintain mass balance.
2; 7; all of it
306
How does the GI protect itself against foreign invaders?
GALT (gut-associated lymphoid tissue); largest collection of lymphoid tissue in the body
307
GI tissue type:
smooth muslce
308
Cells of the smooth muscle GI tract are [...] connected by [...]. These segments can be [...] or [...] contracted.
electrically; gap junctions; tonic; phasic
309
Intestinal smooth muscle exhibits spontaneous [...] potentials that originate in the [...].
slow wave; interstitial cells of Cajal
310
Migrating motor complex:
between meals this complex moves food remnants from the upper GI tract to the lower regions
311
Peristaltic contractions are [...] waves of contraction that mainly occur in the [...]. Segmental contractions are [...] contractions.
progressive; esophagus; mixing
312
[...] neurons lie completely within the ENS.
intrinsic neurons
313
GI: Short reflexes originate in the [...] and are integrated [...]. Long reflexes may originate in the [...] and are integrated by the [...].
ENS; there; ENS or outside; CNS
314
Parasympathetic innervation is [...] for GI function. Sympathetic innervation is [...].
excitatory; inhibitory

Physiology (3 decks)

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