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1
Q

What are the pros of asexual reproduction?

A

• Pros:
o removes requirement to locate a mate
• searching for mates takes time and energy
• low encounter rates in particular habitats (e.g. parasites)
o facilitates rapid reproduction
• lots of offspring quickly
o perpetuates successful genotypes
• sexual reproduction produces unique genetic combinations

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2
Q

What is the difference of genotype sex-determination and environment sex-determination?

A

Sex determination: Vertebrates
• genotypic sex-determination (GSD)
o sex chromosomes (e.g. XX/XY, ZZ/ZW)
o all birds & mammals, most fish, amphibians & reptiles
• environmental sex-determination (ESD)
o e.g. temperature
o some fish & amphibians, common in reptiles

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3
Q

What is the cost of sexual reproduction?

A

• widespread in animals despite its numerous costs
• recombination breaks up successful gene combinations
o crossing over during meiosis
o but produces offspring with novel genotypes
• Costs of mating:
o gamete production (energetically expensive)
o intrasexual selection (competition in order to select mate)
o intersexual selection
o locating a mate
o mate choice (not all individuals reproduce)
o parental care: costly & not always successful
o sexually transmitted diseases

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4
Q

What are the life history strategies?

A

Life history strategies:
• r/K selection theory
o method to describe/categorise life histories
o It is on a spectrum
• r-selected animals
o production of a large number of offspring (of whom only a minority may survive) as early in life as possible
o live fast, die young
• K-selected animals
o production of a smaller number of ‘fitter’ offspring with higher chances of survival

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5
Q

what are the difference between r and k selection?

A

• r-selected animals
o production of a large number of offspring (of whom only a minority may survive) as early in life as possible
o live fast, die young
• K-selected animals
o production of a smaller number of ‘fitter’ offspring with higher chances of survival

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6
Q

Difference between Marine and terrestrial environment:

A

Marine is stable and predictable, while terrestrial is not plus need support structures in terrestrial

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7
Q

Difference between internal and external fertilisation with life history?

A

Internal fertilisation reduces the amount of offspring the female can produce and direct development occurs

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8
Q

What is the life history of Field crickets?

A 
•	male display behaviour related to mating success
•	display behaviour costly
o	energy, predator detection
•	high display rates = high quality male
•	field crickets (Teleogryllus commodus)- Orthoptera
o	protein diets (low, medium, high)
o	adult females, nymphs
•	high protein → longer lifespan
o	adult males
•	high protein → shorter lifespan
o	Females respond to males that call more
o	protein level
•	influence resource allocation
o	high protein: ↑ calling effort
•	decreased body condition
o	higher reproductive success
o	but ↓ life span
o	life history trade-off
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9
Q

What is the life history of Perrodical Cicadas?

A

• Hemiptera
• life cycle
o larvae: underground, feed on tree roots
o adults: winged, dispersal, reproduction
o long-lived larvae, short-lived adult
o semelparous
• Magicicada: eastern US
o long life cycle
o prime number life cycles
• 13 years
• 17 years
o predators unable to ‘track’ and get their reproductive cycles synched with the cicadas
o synchronised emergence
• huge numbers
• predator satiation
• among species in area
o Magicicada: species complex
• 3 ecologically & morphologically distinct species
• each has 13 year & 17 year forms
• ancestral form: 13 year (+ 4 year life cycle extension)
• 17 year form: favoured in cold conditions (I-XVII)
• 13 year form: favoured in warm conditions (XVIII-XXX)
• broods emerge in different years
 cannot interbreed (temporal reproductive isolation)
• life cycle switch in one species pair
 17 year form reverted to 13 year cycle
 emerge in same year as 13 year form mtDNA

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10
Q

Name the different types of parasites?

A

• ectoparasite
o live on the outer surface of the host
o e.g. skin, hair
o attachment structures (hooks, suckers, teeth)
• endoparasite
o live inside the host’s body
o e.g. intestines, lungs, liver, muscles, internal organs, blood
• parasitoid
o insects whose larvae develop by feeding upon the bodies of other
o arthropods (usually insects), resulting in the death of the host
o Hymenoptera (wasps), Diptera (flies)
o intermediate between parasites and predators
o hyperparasitoids: parasitoids of parasitoids

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11
Q

Describe parasites Life History evolution?

A

• life cycles
o sexual reproduction, direct development, single host
o sexual/asexual reproduction, series of life stages, multiple hosts
o asexual reproduction of immature life stages
o high incidence of hermaphrodites
• morphology
o different to free-living relatives
• enhance transmission
o reproductive output
• life history co-evolves with host
o body size smaller than host
o body size correlated with most life history traits (e.g. fecundity)
o thermal environment
o less constrained in ectoparasites

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12
Q

Benefits of the Amniotic egg?

A

• Amniotes
o facilitates life on land (no free living larval stage)
o protective calcareous shell (permeable)
o yolk nourish embryo
o Still live in aquatic environment but does not dry out
o three embryonic membranes
• allantois: store embryo waste
• chorion: blood vessels, gas exchange
• amnion: fluid-filled, protects embryo

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13
Q

Fish and amphibian’s r/k strategy?

A

• Fishes & amphibians
o reproduce in aquatic environments
o fish: can adopt strategies similar to marine invertebrates
o trend towards r-selection, but cover entire spectrum

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14
Q

Reptiles, birds and mammals r/k strategy?

A

o internal fertilisation, amniotic egg
o trend towards K-selection
o ↑ provisioning & parental investment, egg size, body size & life span
o sociality: overlapping generations, delayed maturity, parental care

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15
Q

Fertilisation for aquatic vertebrates?

A 
•	external fertilisation
o	aquatic vertebrates
o	most fishes & amphibians
•	Agnathans (jawless fishes)
o	ova & sperm released into coelom
o	shed through genital pores
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16
Q

Fertilisation for terrestrial vertebrates?

A

• all other vertebrates
o duct systems carry ova or sperm
o reproductive function
• internal fertilisation
o terrestrial vertebrates: reptiles, birds & mammals
o some fishes (e.g. sharks) & amphibians (salamanders, caecilians)
• often have intromittent organ
o birds press cloaca’s together (except ratites, ducks & geese) some amphibians
o squamate reptiles & tuatara: hemipenes
o turtles & crocodiles: penis
o mammals: variable penis structure
• many marsupials: bifid penes (two-headed)
• most mammals: bone support (bacula)
• blood-filled tissues (primates, horses, rabbits)
• spermatophores (sperm packets)
o deposit on substrate
o females uptake spermatophores with cloaca
o Sperm storage
o Internal fertilisation

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17
Q

What are the 3 ways amphibians fertilise?

A 
•	majority of Anurans (frogs & toads)
o	external fertilisation
o	no intromittent organ
•	most Caudata (salamanders & newts)
o	internal fertilisation
o	no intromittent organ
•	Gymnophiona (caecilians)
o	internal fertilisation
o	intromittent organ
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18
Q

Aquatic vs Terrestrial Environments?

A

• physical properties of water (vs air)
o 1000x more dense (provides support)
o 50x more viscous (impedes locomotion)
o 3000x thermal capacity (relatively stable temperatures)
o sound travels 4-5x faster (communication)
o impedes vision (can see further on land)
o 30x less oxygen content
o lower water loss (desiccation a major challenge on land)
• aquatic environment
o external fertilisation, r-selected strategies

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19
Q

what is Chinook Salmon Life History?

A

• largest salmon species (adult size 18-61 kg)
• arctic, northwest & northeast Pacific
• life cycle (life span 4-8 years)
o anadromous: adults live in ocean, breed in freshwater
o adults: ~3-6 years at sea, return to natal river to spawn
o mate & lay eggs (3000-14000) in nest pocket (redd) guard eggs for up to 1 month, then die (semelparous)
o eggs 3-5 months to hatch
o fry/parr: up to 2 years in freshwater before moving to estuary/ocean

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20
Q

Life History of Evolution in Reptiles?

A 
•	terrestrial ectotherms
o	low metabolic rate (↓ energy needs)
o	behavioural control of body temperature
•	influence life history evolution
•	life history traits differ from endothermic vertebrates
o	smaller offspring size
o	larger litter sizes
o	lower growth rate
o	infrequent reproduction
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21
Q

What is the Life History evolution in Birds?

A

• oviparous
o variation in egg size
• eggs laid in nest
o one or both parents incubate eggs
• hatchlings
o altricial: naked, need warmth & food until leave nest
o precocial: well-developed, leave nest once dry
• reach adult body size when fledge (determinate growth)
• stay with parents until reach independence
• sexual maturity & breed
o continue to breed until die

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22
Q

Why Do Lizards Shed Their Tails?

A
  • escape predator’s grasp
  • tail distracts predator
  • make a getaway
  • last-ditch strategy
  • caudal autotomy
  • Why:
  • direct the predator’s attack towards the tail (expendable)
  • rarely survive attacks directed to the head or body
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23
Q

What gives us the most energy?

A
  • Nectar
  • Muscle
  • Sticks
  • Grass
  • Soil
  • (^^ in order)
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24
Q

What are the types of guts?

A 
What are the types of guts?
•	Simple sac-like gut
o	Single opening – 2-way flow
o	e.g. flatworms
•	Tube-like gut
o	Two openings, mouth and anus – 1-way flow
o	Allows specialisation of gut regions
o	Allows food storage
o	Allows for large food to be digestive
o	Allows for specialisation
o	Larger food are complex thus need segmentation of digestive tract
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25
How do sponges feed?
Filter feeder
26
How do Cnidarians feed?
o 2-way sac-like gut o Intracellular and extracellular digestion o Use of nematocyst (like a harpoon) which have poison on it, reducing the preys ability to escape.
27
How do flatworms feed?
o 2-way sac-like gut o Pharynx is situated on the middle of the body o Uses pharynx and muscle body to capture prey o Wrap around prey or entangle in slime o Food swallowed whole or in pieces o Digestion is first extracellular, then engulfe
28
How do annelids feed?
``` o True coelom o 1-way gut o Very wide range of feeding styles • Suspension • Deposit  In-Direct deposit feeders • Non-selective • Ingest sediment and assimilate organic material • Very low organic matter content (1-2%) • Eat soil  Direct deposit feeders • Selective • Select food using tentacles ```
29
How do molluscs feed?
``` o Radula • Ribbon of chitinous teeth • Project radula out of mouth • Radula moves like conveyor belt • over odontophore • Teeth scrape surface ```
30
What is the dental formula for Docoglossate radula?
``` o Gougers o Docoglossate (spear) radula • Iron and silicon helps with support for the teeth o Dental formula • 4 + 2 + 1 + 2 + 4 ```
31
What is the dental formula for Rhipidoglossate (fan) radula?
o Scrapes/sweepers o Rhipidoglossate (fan) radula o Dental formula o ∞ + 5 + 1 + 5 + ∞
32
What is the dental formula for Rachiglossate (spine) radula?
``` o drillers: • Rachiglossate (spine) radula  3 large, multicusped teeth • Dental formula  0 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 0 • Carnivore ```
33
What is the dental formula for one long tooth radula?
``` • Carnivore • e.g. cone shell • Toxoglossate (archer) radula  Highly specialised  Toxic barbs • Dental formula • 0 + 1 + 0 + 1 + 0 ```
34
How do bivalves feed
Molluscs - Bivalves: • Filter Feeders o Lamellibranch gills (ctenidia)
35
How do echinoderms feed?
``` • Carnivores & scavengers o Cardiac stomach (oral) • Evert over prey • Releases digestive jucies o Pyloric stomach (aboral) o Pyloric caeca • Additional digestion o Feeding on fish and bivalves o Star fish is able to open bi-values using its tube feet, then able to release its cardiac stomach ```
36
How do sea urchins feed?
``` • Sea urchins: o Herbivores • Algae grazers • Aristotle’s lantern with teeth • Scrape, grasp and pull food ```
37
How do decapods feed?
``` • Food captured with chelipeds • Passed to 3rd maxillipeds • Pieces torn by maxillae and maxillipeds • Deposit feeding: o Chelipeds scoop up mud and detritus o Water from branchial chamber washes sediment through setal filters o Organic particles are ingested o Cardiac chamber • Gastric mill • Setal screen ```
38
How do barnacles feed?
• Filter feeding o Closely-packed setae on cirri o Extend cirri out aperture, and either beat or use current o Food masticated by mandibles and maxillae
39
Name the mouthparts of an insects mouth?
``` • Mouthparts: o Labrum – ‘upper lip’ o Mandibles o Maxillae o Labium – ‘lower lip’ ```
40
How do insects breakdown their food?
``` o Proventriculus • Gizzard with teeth • = helps with breaking down the food • Has teeth o Midgut • Peritrophic membrane • Secreted membrane protects midgut walls • Partitioning of gut ```
41
Difference between carnivores and herbivorous fish?
``` • Carnivores o Large stomach o Short intestine o Wide gape o Teeth prevent escape • Omnivores • Herbivores o Reduced stomach o Long intestine o Narrow gape o Teeth for crushing or scraping food ```
42
What are the characteristics of a carnivores digestive system?
``` o Easily digested • Short and simple guts • Shearing/Tearing teeth • Exception  piscivores • many simple teeth  Marine Mammals • Long simple gut ```
43
What muscle is needed to move the jaw in vegetarian animals?
Also in Herbivores the masseter is a lot larger than the temporalis, in Carnis, both these muscles are the same size
44
Describe the foregut process?
• Regurgitate and rechew food (Ruminate) o Increases efficacy of breaking down food • Microbial fermentation occurs in the forestomach • Short chain fatty acids is the energy source, helps create ATP • Foregut fermenters: o Efficient at obtaining energy from plant material • Breakdown of cellulose • Use of short chain fatty acids • ^^^all are sources of energy o Restricted passage of food through gut • Prolong retention • Increase extent of fermentation o Restrictions on food quality: food must be • Relatively low in fibre (higher quality)  High quality means more cell content and little cell wall • Relatively high in protein
45
Difference between high and low food quality?
o If food quality too low: more propotion of cell wall then cell content • Not enough protein • Too much fibre – cannot pass to midgut o If food quality too high: more cell content then cell wall • Too much protein • Not enough fibre • Excess gas production
46
Describe the hindgut process:
``` Small hindgut fermenters: • Microbial fermentation occurs in the hind-stomach • Caecum fermenters • Caecum is fermentation chamber o Small particles selectively retained o Large particles expelled • Caecotrophy o Ingest faeces to obtain protein from bacteria Hindgut fermenters: • Invest in digestion of cell contents • Inefficient at extracting energy • Consume large quantities of food • Can detoxify food before it gets to bacteria • Fewer restrictions on food quality o High quality – low quality ```
47
Describe the difference between herbivore dentition?
``` • Foregut fermenter: o Shorter tooth row o Rechew partly softened material while resting o Bacteria assist • Hindgut fermenter: o Longer tooth row o Only get one chance o Must rupture many cells to release contents ```
48
Difference between grazers and browsers dentition?
``` • Graze (Grass foliage) o Relatively poor quality o Abundant o Very abrasive o High crown, continually growing teeth as they are close to the dirt and dirt wears teeth down o Lawn mowers o Social • Browse (dicot (leaves) foliage) o Relatively good quality o Patchy distribution or difficult to access o Chemical deterrents o Low crown teeth o Selective feeders o Solitary Lifestyle, hence, get better food by themselves ```
49
How do bones grow?
* Begins as cartilage * Increase in length at ends * Increase in width at periphery with center dissolved * Growth continues during life in response to need
50
What is bone marrow?
* Occupies spaces in bone * Red marrow mesh of fibres that produces blood cells – haemopoietic * Fatty yellow marrow in adult long bones
51
Difference between Compact and Spongy bones?
``` Compact bone: • Cylinders of tissue around blood vessel • Perforating canals connect osteons • Dense and heavy Spongy bone: • Formed by trabeculae • Spaces filled with red bone marrow • Few osteons or haversian canals • Strong but light ```
52
What are the functions of muscles?
* posture * movement * Peristalsis (movement of muscles) * generation of heat & electricity * sound * internal organ function
53
Explain the sliding filament theory?
the myosin (thick) filaments of muscle fibers slide past the actin (thin)filaments during muscle contraction, while the two groups of filaments remain at relatively constant length
54
How do animals undergo respiration underwater?
Respiration organs increases diffusive surface area, thus, Gills are efficient in water but not in air
55
How do gills work?
Counter-current flow: • essential component of opercular & ram ventilation • maintains concentration gradient • feature of many biological exchange systems • Concurrent exchange = blood and water go the same way
56
How do insects breath?
* limited transport capacity * rely on body compression * Air is inhaled through the spiracle, which is lined with small air which acts a filter * O2 goes straight to the Muscles * Located around the body
57
How do mammals breath?
* Gas exchange takes place only in the alveoli * dead space - non respiratory surfaces * O2 dissolves in surfactant * diffuses across epithelium into blood * CO2 in opposite direction
58
How do amphibians breath?
Fill buccal cavity with air, close mouth, open the glottis and then push the air into the lungs as positive pressure
59
How do birds breath?
Have 2 sacs called Caudal and cranial sacs where there is parabronchi which take the O2, there is two areas where O2 is able to taken up, a lot more effective than any other animals
60
How does Blood in fish circulate?
``` Single circuit blood flow: • found in fish • 2 chambered heart • pressure in gills depends on pressure in rest of body • volume change with heart contraction ```
61
How does Blood in amphibian/reptiles circulate?
o Amphibian/reptile 3 chambered heart o ventricle undivided o some mixing of blood o equal pressure o skin & lungs both receive blood (not reptiles) o Volume difference between respiratory –systemic circuits
62
How does Blood in mammals/birds circulate?
o complete division of ventricle o differential pressure in pulmonary & systemic circuits o most effective O2 delivery system o Pressure difference between respiratory –systemic circuits o pulmonary & systemic circuits operate simultaneously o distribution of blood to organs not equal or constant
63
how do saltwater and freshwater fish differ with excretion?
Freshwater: Have a large glomerulus and excrete dilute urine Saltwater: Glomerulus reduced or absent with excretion of salt and with water
64
How do seabirds excrete salt?
Through salt glands on their head, salt is excreted to this gland from their blood
65
How do insects be efficient with water loss?
Use of malpighian tubule acts like the loop of heenle, water is absorbed from the waste and waxy cuticle helps retain water
66
What is the process in excretion with water for humans?
``` o Step 1: filtration: • Glomerulus • Bowman’s capsule • Ultrafiltration site Step 2: reabsorption and secretion o Step 3: Concentration • Counter-current multiplier ```
67
What is the reflex arc?
``` • Sensory – Motor responses o Sensory (afferent) neuron > receptor o Interneurons o Motor (efferent) neuron > effector o SAME ```
68
How do insects smell?
``` • Sensilla • Many on each antenna • Three parts o Cuticular structure (hair) with many small pores o v Support cells produce lymph (mucus) o v Sensory Neurons w. cilia ```
69
Explain how the olfactory epithelium works?
• Olfactory Epithelium: o Primary receptor cells o Receptor proteins on cilia of olfactory neurons o Shortest cranial nerve o Information directly to olfactory cortex
70
What is in the mammalian inner ear non-hearing part?
``` • Non-hearing part • Labyrinth o Utriculus o Sacculus o Semi-circular canals • Detect o Gravity (position) o Acceleration (linear) • Otoliths shift & stimulate hair cells • Detect o Circular Movements (3D) ```
71
What is in the mammalian ear?
``` • Pinna • Tympanic membrane • Middle ear bones o Malleus o Incus o Stapes • Inner ear • Oval window • Cochlea o Tectoreal membrane o Hair cells ```
72
How does hearing work in the ear?
Inner Ear Acoustics: • Fluid moves hair cells of Organ of Corti • Basilar membrane & hair cells oscillate • Place hypothesis of pitch • Resonance of basilar membrane • Location = frequency
73
What is a tripartite brain?
``` • Major divisions o Forebrain o Brainstem • Midbrain • Hindbrain ```
74
What does dinosauser bones tell us?
* more like mammals than reptiles * don’t show growth lines * higher proportion of remodeled secondary bone * bone remodeling may be due to great weight * bone blood supply suggests more rapid metabolic processes

animal structure and function (3 decks)

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