Exam Revision Flashcards
Units 1 and 2 VCE Psychology definitions (291 cards)
1
Q
Ablation
A
the surgical removal, destruction or cutting of tissue p. 77
2
Q
Accommodation
A
the cognitive process of restructuring an existing schema in order to fit in new information p. 206
3
Q
Adaptive behaviours
A
activity that enhances an individual’s ability to match the changing demands of their everyday life p. 244
4
Q
Adaptive plasticity
A
the brain’s ability to restore and enhance neural functioning over time due to experience p. 144
5
Q
Addiction disorder
A
a category of psychological disorder characterised by a dependence on a particular substance or behaviour despite negative consequences p. 259
6
Q
Adolescence
A
the developmental period beginning after the onset of puberty from approximately 10 to 19 years old p. 136
7
Q
Advertising
A
the process of using media to persuade people to purchase commercial products p. 419
8
Q
Affective component
A
our emotions and intuitive feelings towards something p. 346
9
Q
Aim
A
a statement outlining the purpose of the study p. 3
10
Q
Allocation
A
the process of assigning participants to conditions in the experiment for the research p. 23
11
Q
Anxiety disorder
A
a category of psychological disorder characterised by extreme, ongoing worry and distress p. 261
12
Q
Assimilation
A
the cognitive process of incorporating new information into an existing schema p. 206
13
Q
Attachment
A
a long-lasting emotional bond between two individuals p. 183
14
Q
Attachment theory
A
a theory that suggests that the bond formed between children and their primary caregivers determines the nature of the child’s emotional development into adulthood p. 183
15
Q
Attitude
A
an evaluation of something, such as a person, object, event, or idea p. 345
16
Q
Attribution
A
an evaluation made about the causes of behaviour and the process of making this evaluation p. 359
17
Q
Attributional style
A
tendencies and repeated patterns in the way someone makes attributions. Also known as a person’s explanatory style p. 361
18
Q
Atypical behaviours
A
activity that is unusual or unnatural according to how an individual usually behaves p. 243
19
Q
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
A
the branch of the PNS responsible for connecting the CNS and the body’s visceral (non-skeletal) organs, muscles and glands p. 92
20
Q
Autopsy
A
the examination of a body after death to determine the cause of death or the cause of a disease or disorder that a person suffered p. 76
21
Q
Axon
A
the long strand-like part of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body to the sending end of a neuron p. 101
22
Q
Axon terminals
A
the ends of a neuron that release a message into the synapse p. 101
23
Q
Bar chart
A
a graph that depicts the relationship between two variables using rectangular bars p. 49
24
Q
Behavioural component
A
our outward and observable actions that reflect our point of view of something p. 346
25
Biological factors
factors relating to genetic makeup and physiological functioning of the body p. 251
26
Bipolar disorder
a category of mood disorder characterised by disabling alternations between periods of low moods and periods of heightened moods (mania or hypomania) p. 263
27
Brain
an organ contained in the skull that coordinates thought, behaviour and nervous system activity p. 71, 90
28
Brain stem
a part of the brain which is an extension of the spinal cord, including the midbrain, medulla, and pons p. 107
29
Brain versus heart debate
a historical debate surrounding whether the heart or the brain was responsible for central functions including thought, emotion, and behaviour p. 72
30
Broca’s area
the area of the frontal lobe responsible for the production of speech and some aspect of speech interpretation p. 119
31
Bullying
intentionally and repeatedly causing an individual or group to feel distressed through verbal, social or physical behaviours p. 413
32
Case study
an in-depth study of an individual or a very small group of individuals p. 12
33
Central nervous system (CNS)
the brain and spinal cord p. 90
34
Centration
the act of focusing only on one feature or characteristic of an object to the exclusion of all others p. 214
35
Cerebellum
the ball-like structure at the lower back of the brain behind the brain stem, primarily involved in skeletal muscle movement and coordination p. 108
36
Cerebral cortex
the thin outer layer of the cerebrum p. 116
37
Cerebrum
the largest expanse of brain matter, including the outer cerebral cortex and inner tissue of the forebrain, responsible for a range of sophisticated functions p. 111
38
Choosing an experimental research design
the process of choosing an appropriate experimental research design in order to reduce possible extraneous and confounding variables p. 29
39
Classification
the ability to group objects or concepts into categories which are organised on the basis of common features p. 215
40
Cognition
the ability to produce thought as well as comprehend and organise information from the internal and external environment p. 205
41
Cognitive bias
an error in thought processes that impacts rational decision making and reasoning p. 362
42
Cognitive component
our thoughts and beliefs towards something p. 346
43
Computerised tomography (CT)
a neuroimaging technique that involves taking continuous two-dimensional x-ray images of a person’s brain or body in order to provide both two and three-dimensional images p. 82, 151
44
Conclusion
a statement regarding the results of an investigation as to whether the hypothesis was supported or not p. 55
45
Concrete thinking
a type of thought based on knowledge acquired through personal experience which involves literal interpretations of tangible concepts p. 216
46
Cones
photoreceptors that allow someone to see colour and fine details in well-lit conditions p. 308
47
Confidentiality
the right of the participant for their personal details to remain private p. 36
48
Conformity
the alignment of one’s thoughts, feelings, or behaviour to match those of others or societal expectations p. 393
49
Confounding variables
variables other than the independent variable that have directly and systematically had an effect on the dependent variable p. 28
50
Conservation
the ability to understand that the properties of an object stay the same even when the object’s appearance is altered p. 215
51
Contralateral functions
the role of each cerebral hemisphere to receive sensory information from, and control the movement of, the opposite side of the body p. 117
52
Control group
a group that is used as a basis for comparison; participants are not exposed to the experimental conditions (the IV) p. 15
53
Convenience sampling
when a sample is selected using the quickest and easiest means possible, selecting people who are readily available from the population p. 22
54
Coping
the ability to meet and overcome the challenges and setbacks faced during everyday life p. 252
55
Counterbalancing
a method used in repeated measures experimental designs to reduce order effects p. 30
56
Covert bullying
indirect forms of bullying, such as excluding people from group events or talking about them behind their backs p. 414
57
Cranial nerves
the nerves which extend from the tongue to the brain, along which gustatory information is transmitted p. 320
58
Critical periods
the narrow, rigid developmental period in which a specific skill or function must be learnt p. 177
59
Cross-sectional study
when data is collected from participants from different segments of the population (pre-existing cohorts) to represent a ‘snapshot’ in time p. 12
60
Cyberbullying
bullying that involves intentionally harmful behaviour that occurs repeatedly in online spaces, such as on social media p. 414
61
Debriefing
a process which occurs at the conclusion of a study and involves the researcher outlining the nature of the study to participants and includes ensuring that participants do not leave the study with lasting harm p. 36
62
Deception
when the participant is unaware of the true nature of the study p. 36
63
Deep brain stimulation
a treatment for neurological disorders that involves creating an electrical current through a pulse generator to stimulate a particular region of the brain with depleted neural activity due to degenerated and damaged levels of neurons p. 150
64
Deindividuation
the tendency for individuals to lose their sense of identity and individuality within a group p. 399
65
Dendrites
the bushy spines of a neuron that receive a message p. 101
66
Dependent variable (DV)
the variable that is being measured in an experiment for changes it experiences due to the effect of something (i.e. the independent variable) p. 5
67
Depressive disorder
a category of mood disorder characterised by a disabling low mood p. 263
68
Depth cues
visual clues that allow someone to judge the distance or depth of stimuli in their environment p. 312
69
Descriptive statistics
statistics that are used to organise and summarise data p. 47
70
Developmental plasticity
changes in the brain that occur in response to ageing and maturation p. 135
71
Difficult temperament
a relatively stable disposition in which infants are unhappy and have irregular sleeping and eating patterns p. 188
72
Discrimination
the unjust treatment of people due to their membership within a certain social category p. 355
73
Disorganised attachment
a style of attachment in which the infant displays problematic and unpredictable behaviours, usually due to extremely negative early life experiences p. 199
74
Dizygotic twins
twins who are not identical due to variations in the genes they inherited p. 168
75
Dopamine
a neurotransmitter responsible for the coordination of voluntary movement and experiences of pleasure and pain p. 148
76
Double-blind procedure
a procedure in which both the participants and the person conducting the experiment are unaware of which condition participants have been allocated to in order to reduce experimenter bias and participant expectations p. 31
77
Dualism
in the mind-body problem, the view that the mind and the body are separate and distinguishable things p. 73
78
Easy temperament
a relatively stable disposition in which infants are warm and friendly and have established sleeping and eating patterns p. 188
79
Egocentrism
the inability to understand the perspectives of others p. 214
80
Electrical brain stimulation (EBS)
a research or therapeutic technique that involves electrically stimulating parts of the brain p. 78
81
Emotional development
the continuous, life-long development of skills which allow individuals to control, express, and recognise emotions in an appropriate way p. 185
82
Empirical evidence
data that is collected through direct observation or through experiments p. 2
83
Environmental factors
factors which influence development that arise from an individual’s physical and social surroundings p. 164
84
Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development
a theory of development proposed by Erikson in which the behaviour and personality of individuals is shaped by the desire to meet social and cultural expectations p. 225
85
Ethical guidelines
a set of rules and considerations that researchers must abide by when conducting research p. 34
86
Ethics committee
a group of people who review research proposals and consider the potential risks, benefits and implications in order to either approve or disapprove them for research p. 35
87
Experiment
a study conducted in a carefully controlled environment to measure the cause and effect relationship between variables p. 11
88
Experimental group
the group within an experiment that are exposed to experimental conditions (the IV) p. 15
89
Experimenter effects
when an experimenter’s expectations about the study influence the results p. 31
90
External attribution
a judgement of the causes of a behaviour as resulting from forces outside the individual performing the behaviour p. 360
91
External factors
factors which arise from the environment of an individual and contribute to their mental health p. 251
92
External validity
the extent to which the results of an investigation can be applied to other settings, people and time p. 57
93
Extraneous variables
variables other than the independent variable that may produce unwanted results in an experiment p. 28
94
Eye
the sensory organ for vision p. 308
95
Fallibility
the quality of being prone to error or experiencing difficulties in judgement p. 327
96
Forebrain
the largest area of the brain, located at the top and front of the brain p. 110
97
Frontal lobe
the largest lobe of the cerebral cortex at the front of the cerebral hemispheres with the functions of high-order mental processes, regulation and expression of emotions, voluntary movement, and the production speech p. 118
98
Frontal lobe development
the growth and neural maturation of the frontal lobe p. 137
99
Functional approach to normality
defining normality in terms of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that enable the individual to meet the demands of everyday life p. 241
100
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
a neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic and radio fields to take two and three-dimensional images of the brain and its activity levels p. 84, 151
101
Gambling disorder
an addiction disorder which involves an individual compulsively risking their own money or object of value in an attempt to win back more of it p. 259
102
Generalisability
the extent to which the results of an investigation can be applied to the wider research population p. 56
103
Genetics
the unique, cellular makeup of each individual which is inherited from biological parents p. 187
104
Gestalt principles
guiding rules of perception that allow us to organise independent visual signals into meaningful wholes p. 310
105
Glial cells
a specialised cell that protects and supports neurons and their functioning p. 101
106
Goal-directed behaviour
the ability to behave in a way which meets the demands of a goal that has been purposefully set out p. 213
107
Group
two or more people who interact and influence each other and share a common objective p. 374
108
Gustatory receptors
the sensory receptors which detect chemical molecules in food p. 320
109
Hemispheric specialisation
the idea that each of the brain’s cerebral hemispheres has its own specialisations p. 116
110
Hereditary factors
factors which influence development that are genetically passed down from biological parents to their offspring p. 164
111
Hindbrain
an area at the base of the brain, including the medulla and pons (in the brain stem) and the cerebellum p. 107
112
Historical approach to normality
defining normality in terms of the dominant customs of a specific period of time p. 241
113
Hypothalamus
an almond-sized structure in the forebrain, primarily involved in homeostatic functioning as well as motivated and emotional behaviours p. 111
114
Hypothesis
a testable prediction about the outcome of an experiment; it is written in the form of a statement and includes the variables that will be tested p. 3
115
Independent groups design
an experimental design in which participants are split into two or more groups; typically a control group and an experimental groups p. 16
116
Independent variable (IV)
the variable that the experimenter manipulates in order to observe the effect it has on something (i.e. the dependent variable) p. 5
117
Infancy
the developmental period from birth until one years old p. 136
118
Inferential statistics
statistics that provide information on the statistical significance of the results and suggest how they might apply to a wider population p. 47
119
Informational influence
the influence of observable behaviours and information on an individual, influencing their behaviour in certain situations or environments p. 398
120
Informed consent
the right of the participant to have a thorough understanding of the nature of the study, before agreeing to participate p. 36
121
Insecure-anxious attachment
a style of attachment in which the infant may be reluctant to or avoid contact from their primary caregiver, usually formed due to a lack of responsiveness to their needs p. 198
122
Insecure-avoidant attachment
a style of attachment in which the infant fluctuates between clinging to and rejecting their primary caregiver, usually due to the caregiver inconsistently meeting the infant’s needs p. 198
123
Internal attribution
a judgement of the causes of a behaviour as resulting from features of the individual performing the behaviour p. 360
124
Internal factors
factors which arise from within the individual and contribute to their mental health p. 251
125
Internal validity
the extent to which the changes in the dependent variable are caused by the independent variable, and not other variables p. 57
126
Interpretation
the process of understanding and assigning meaning to sensory information p. 303
127
Interview
a type of questionnaire that is usually conducted verbally, involving the researcher asking participants questions and recording their responses p. 11
128
Levodopa
a Parkison’s disease medication that is converted to dopamine by neurons in the brain upon consumption to improve motor functioning outcomes p. 149
129
Line graph
a graph that depicts the relationship between two variables using a line that connects each data point p. 49
130
Localisation of function
the psychological principle that suggests that different areas of the brain are responsible for different behaviours and mental processes p. 117
131
Longitudinal study
a type of investigation in which data is gathered from participants over an extended period of time, and the participants are followed up after specific time intervals p. 12
132
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
a neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic and radio fields to take two and three-dimensional images of the brain p. 82, 151
133
Maladaptive behaviours
activity that impairs an individual’s ability to match the changing demands of their everyday life p. 244
134
Matched participants design
an experimental design in which participants are paired based upon relevant characteristics, where one member of the pair is tested in one condition, and the other member is tested in the other p. 16
135
Maturation
the biologically programmed changes which facilitate development from conception through to adulthood p. 175
136
Mean
a measure of central tendency, expressed numerically, that represents the average of a data set p. 47
137
Media
the form in which information is spread throughout society p. 419
138
Medical approach to normality
defining normality in terms of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that do not fit the clearly outlined diagnostic criteria for a particular p. 242
139
Medulla
a mass of neurons located at the bottom of the brain stem, just above the spinal cord, primarily involved in regulating autonomic functions p. 108
140
Mental health
the current state of a person’s psychological wellbeing and functioning p. 244, 250
141
Mental health continuum
a tool used to track progression of mental health which consistently fluctuates over time, progressing from mentally healthy, to mental health problems, to mental health disorders p. 245
142
Mental health disorder
a diagnosed psychological state characterised by the presence of a severe disturbance and sense of distress, involving thoughts, feelings, and or behaviours that are atypical of the person and that significantly impact their ability to function independently p. 244, 250, 256
143
Midbrain
a part of the brain stem in the centre of the brain p. 109
144
Mind-body problem
a debate that questions whether our mind and body are separate and distinguishable things or whether they are the same thing p. 73
145
Monism
in the mind-body problem, the view that the mind and the body are one and the same thing p. 73
146
Monozygotic twins
twins who are identical due to inheriting the exact same genes p. 168
147
Mood disorder
a category of psychological disorder characterised by a disabling lowering or heightening of mood p. 262
148
Motor messages
information about voluntary movement transmitted from the CNS to the skeletal muscles p. 91
149
Myelin
the fat and protein substance that surrounds and insulates the axon of a neuron p. 101
150
Myelination
the formation of myelin around the axons of neurons p. 136
151
Nature versus nurture debate
a debate which questions whether development is dependent on hereditary (nature) or environmental (nurture) factors p. 163
152
Nervous system
the complex network of specialised cells in the body that allows the communication of information around the body about the internal and external environment p. 88
153
Neurodegenerative disorder
a disease characterised by the progressive loss of neurons in the brain p. 148
154
Neuroimaging
a range of techniques used to capture images of the brain’s structure, function and activities p. 81
155
Neurological disorder
a disease characterised by any damage or malfunctioning of the nervous system p. 148
156
Neuron
a nerve cell responsible for transmitting, receiving, and processing information p. 98
157
Neuronal reception
the process in which a neuron accepts (receives) a message p. 99
158
Neurotransmission
the process in which a neuron sends a message p. 99
159
No-harm principle
the role of the researcher to ensure that all participants within an investigation do not experience mental or physical harm p. 35
160
Non-standardised testing procedures
when instructions and procedures in an experiment are not consistent for all participants, therefore affecting the results obtained p. 31
161
Normality
the state of having thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that are considered common and acceptable p. 240
162
Normative influence
the influence of social norms on an individual, influencing a person to act in certain ways which align with social norms p. 397
163
Obedience
adhering to the instructions of authority figures or the rules or laws of society p. 383
164
Object permanence
the understanding that an object still exists when it is unable to be seen, heard, or touched p. 213
165
Objective data
data that does not rely on personal opinion and is independent of the interpreter; it can be observed or measured by multiple people and obtain the same results p. 41
166
Observational study
a type of study in which data is collected through careful monitoring of participants p. 12
167
Occipital lobe
the rearmost lobe of the cerebral cortex behind the parietal lobe, with the primary function of processing visual stimuli p. 121
168
Operationalisation
the process of defining variables in terms of how they will be manipulated or measured in the experiment p. 6
169
Optic nerve
the two nerves which extend from the back of the eye to the brain, along which visual information is transmitted to the brain p. 308
170
Order effects
a source of error in repeated measures designs due to the order the participants participate in the experimental and control conditions p. 30
171
Organisation
the process of regrouping features of sensory stimuli together in order to form cohesive and meaningful information p. 302
172
Outlier
a value that differs significantly from the other values in a data set p. 48
173
Overt bullying
visible forms of bullying, such as causing physical harm or name calling p. 413
174
Parasympathetic nervous system
a branch of the ANS responsible for returning and maintaining the body’s visceral organs, muscles and glands at optimal and balanced functioning p. 92
175
Parietal lobe
the lobe of the cerebral cortex behind the frontal lobe with the functions of receiving and processing sensory stimuli and spatial awareness p. 120
176
Parkinson’s disease
a progressive disease of the nervous system characterised by both motor and non-motor symptoms p. 148
177
Participant-related variables
individual participant differences that can affect the results p. 29
178
Perception
the process of selecting, organising, and interpreting sensory information to be able to understand it p. 302
179
Perceptual distortion
an error in the judgement or interpretation of sensory stimuli p. 327
180
Perceptual set
a predisposition to perceive stimuli in a certain way due to a range of factors including a perceiver’s mood, motivations, context, and past experiences p. 314, 323
181
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
all nerves outside the CNS, responsible for carrying information to and from the CNS p. 90
182
Person perception
the different mental processes used to understand and form impressions of other people p. 353
183
Personal factors
influences on helping that stem from within the individual who is or is not going to help p. 406
184
Personality
the unique qualities and characteristics that an individual possesses and expresses through their thoughts, feelings, and behaviours p. 224
185
Personality disorder
a category of mental disorders that are characterised by a set of enduring personality traits and behaviours which diverge significantly from cultural and societal norms, causing marked distress or harm for an individual p. 264
186
Photoreceptors
the sensory receptors of the eye which receive light and are responsible for the process of transduction p. 308
187
Phrenology
the study of the shape and size of the human skull to determine personality and mental functioning p. 74
188
Placebo
an inactive medication, procedure or treatment that is used to control for participant expectations p. 30
189
Placebo effect
when an inactive treatment or procedure has an effect due to the participants’ expectations p. 30
190
Plasticity
the ability of the brain to physically change in response to experience and learning p. 134
191
Pons
a small structure located directly above the medulla in the brain stem, primarily involved in relaying information between different brain areas and regulating the respiratory system p. 108
192
Population
the group of people of interest to an experiment, to which the results of the experiment are generalised to p. 4, 20
193
Positron emission tomography (PET)
a neuroimaging technique that uses a scanning device to take coloured images of the brain, showing its functional activity and structure by tracing the levels of a radioactive substance in the brain p. 83, 151
194
Postsynaptic neuron
the neuron that receives a message from the synapse p. 100
195
Power
the extent to which an individual can influence or control another individual’s thoughts, feelings and behaviour p. 375
196
Prefrontal cortex
an area of the frontal lobe responsible for higher-order cognitive processes p. 118
197
Prejudice
a negative feeling held against people within a certain group or social category p. 355
198
Premotor cortex
an area of the frontal lobe responsible for planning necessary sequences for motor movements p. 118
199
Presynaptic neuron
the neuron that releases a message into the synapse p. 100
200
Primary auditory cortex
the area of the temporal lobe that is responsible for the perception of sound p. 122
201
Primary data collection
a method of data collection involving data being collected directly by the researcher p. 40
202
Primary motor cortex
an area of the frontal lobe that initiates voluntary movements by sending motor neural messages to our skeletal muscles p. 118
203
Primary somatosensory cortex
the area of the parietal lobe responsible for receiving and processing sensory information p. 120
204
Primary visual cortex
the area of the occipital lobe involved in receiving visual information from the sensory receptors located on the retina of our eyes p. 121
205
Prosocial behaviour
behaviour that is intentionally and voluntarily performed in order to help another person or society p. 403
206
Psychological development
an individual’s changes across multiple domains, including the life-long growth across emotional, cognitive and social domains p. 163
207
Psychological factors
factors relating to cognitive and affective functioning p. 251
208
Psychology
the scientific study of human mental states and beaviour p. 70
209
Psychosis
a psychological state in which an individual’s grasp of reality is impaired and inaccurate p. 266
210
Psychosocial crisis
a point of tension between an individual’s capabilities and the desire to meet the expectations of society p. 225
211
Psychosocial development
the interactions between cognitive and social processes throughout the lifespan that affect development and growth p. 223
212
Psychotic disorder
a category of psychological disorder characterised by the state of psychosis p. 266
213
Qualitative data
data of concepts that is measured or expressed non-numerically p. 41
214
Quantitative data
data concerning numerical amounts and is expressed numerically p. 41
215
Questionnaire
a list of questions that participants can respond to in a variety of formats p. 11
216
Random allocation
when every member of the sample has an equal chance of being assigned to each condition in an experiment p. 23
217
Random sampling
when every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample p. 22
218
Rating scale
a form of questionnaire collecting numerical data from participants’ responses p. 11
219
Reception
when a sensory stimulus is first detected by a sensory organ p. 299
220
Receptive field
the space in which a sensory stimulus can be detected by a sensory receptor p. 300
221
Reliability
how likely it is that the results are consistent and that the same results could be obtained by another researcher p. 57
222
Repeated measures design
an experimental design in which the same participants are in every condition of the experiment p. 16
223
Rerouting
a neuron’s ability to form a new connection with another undamaged neuron p. 144
224
Reticular formation
a net-like structure of neurons extending along the brain stem, connecting various parts of the brain and spinal cord via pathways and projections p. 109
225
Reversibility
the understanding that objects can experience change and then return to their original form p. 214
226
Risk factor
a biological, psychological, or social factor which can increase a person’s susceptibility to or contribute to the development of a psychological disorder p. 258
227
Rods
photoreceptors that allow someone to see in low levels of light p. 308
228
Sample
a subset of the population, commonly referred to as the research participants p. 21
229
Sampling
the process through which the participants for a study are selected from the population of interest p. 21
230
Sampling procedures
the different methods through which a sample can be drawn from a population p. 29
231
Schema
a mental representation of a concept developed through experience p. 206
232
Schizophrenia
a specific kind of psychotic disorder characterised by the presence of longer-term psychosis and impairment to functioning p. 266, 274
233
Secure attachment
a style of attachment formed by a strong emotional bond between the infant and their primary caregiver due to the caregiver consistently meeting the needs of the infant p. 198
234
Selection
the process of attending to certain features of sensory stimuli to the exclusion of others p. 302
235
Self-report
a participant’s subjective account of an experience; this type of investigation can be conducted through the use of a questionnaire, interview or rating scale p. 11
236
Sensation
the process of receiving and detecting raw sensory information via our sensory organs and sending it to the brain p. 299
237
Sensitive periods
the optimal developmental period for a specific function or skill to be learnt p. 177
238
Sensory messages
information about the body’s sensations transmitted from the PNS to the CNS p. 91
239
Sensory receptors
the receptors on a neuron that specialise in receiving information about specific kinds of sensory stimuli p. 299
240
Single-blind procedure
a procedure in which participants are unaware of which condition they have been allocated to in order to reduce participant expectations p. 31
241
Situational approach to normality
defining normality according to what is standard and accepted in specific contexts p. 242
242
Situational factors
elements of the environment or context a person is in that influences whether they help p. 404
243
Skeletal muscles
muscles connected to the skeleton that are involved in conscious, voluntary movement p. 91
244
Social factors
factors relating to an individual’s interaction with their external environment and other people p. 251
245
Social factors (on helping)
influences on helping that stem from other people and societal expectations p. 408
246
Social loafing
the tendency to put in less effort when in a group than a person would when alone p. 398
247
Social media
types of media that allow people to interact with others p. 419
248
Social norms
society’s unofficial rules and expectations regarding how we ought to act that most people follow without thinking p. 394, 408
249
Socio-cultural approach to normality
defining normality according what is standard according to social and cultural beliefs and practices p. 241
250
Somatic nervous system (SNS)
the branch of the PNS responsible for sending motor information from the CNS to the body’s skeletal muscles, and bringing sensory information from the body to the CNS in order to formulate voluntary responses p. 91
251
Spinal cord
a long cable of nerve tissue connecting the brain to the peripheral nervous system, responsible for carrying motor information from the brain, and sensory information from the body p. 90
252
Sprouting
a neuron’s ability to develop new branches on the dendrites or axons p. 144
253
Standard deviation
a measure of central tendency, expressed numerically, that represents the spread of data around the mean p. 48
254
Standardised instructions and procedures
the consistent use of instructions and procedures for all participants p. 31
255
Statistical approach to normality
defining normality in terms of what has been measured as commonly occurring thoughts, feeling and behaviours p. 242
256
Status
an individual’s position within a group as perceived by other members of that group p. 375
257
Stereotype
a widely held belief and generalisation about a group of people p. 354
258
Stratified sampling
when the population is divided into groups based upon relevant characteristics, and participants are selected from each group in proportion to how they appear in the population p. 22
259
Subjective data
data that relies on personal opinion or self-report p. 41
260
Symbolic thinking
a more sophisticated type of thought based on the ability to represent concepts, draw conclusions, and understand hypothetical constructs p. 216
261
Sympathetic nervous system
a branch of the ANS responsible for activating the body’s visceral organs, muscles, and glands for increased activity or when under threat p. 92
262
Synaesthesia
a perceptual phenomenon characterised by the experience of unusual perceptions in one sensory system after another sensory system has been activated p. 331
263
Synaesthete
a person who experiences synaesthesia p. 331
264
Synapse
the area in which neurotransmission occurs between two neurons, including the sending end of the presynaptic neuron, the gap between two neurons, and the receiving end of the postsynaptic neuron p. 100
265
Synaptic gap
the space between two neurons into which a neuronal message is transmitted p. 100
266
Synaptic pruning
the elimination of underused synapses p. 137
267
Table
a method of presenting data using columns and rows p. 49
268
Taste
the sensation and perception of flavour p. 319
269
Taste buds
clusters of gustatory receptors on the tongue p. 320
270
Temperament
the relatively stable disposition of an individual, including the typical behaviours and emotions they express p. 188
271
Temporal lobe
the lower central lobe of the cerebral cortex, responsible for auditory perception, as well as being involved in memory, visual perception, and emotional responses p. 122
272
Thalamus
a structure comprising two egg-shaped globes within the forebrain, primarily involved as a relay centre and filtering system for sensory and motor signals, as well as regulating arousal, attention and activity p. 110
273
The ‘two-hit’ hypothesis
a framework which suggests that schizophrenia arises when a person experiences two different types of events: a genetic factor followed by an environmental factor p. 275
274
The biopsychosocial model
a framework for approaching mental health that suggests that biological, psychological, and social factors all interact and contribute to mental health p. 250
275
The bystander effect
the social psychological phenomenon which suggests that the presence (or imagined presence) of other people in an emergency situation reduces the likelihood that someone will provide help p. 405
276
Tongue
the primary sensory organ involved in taste p. 320
277
Transduction
the conversion of raw sensory information detected by sensory receptors into a form that can be sent to the brain p. 300
278
Transmission
the process of sending sensory information as a neural impulse to the part of the brain responsible for processing sensory information p. 301
279
Tri-component model of attitudes
a model which illustrates the relationship between the affective, behavioural and cognitive components of our attitudes p. 346
280
Typical behaviours
activity that is consistent with how an individual usually behaves p. 243
281
Unanimity
complete agreement among two or more individuals p. 397
282
Validity
the extent to which the investigation measures what it intends to measure p. 57
283
Variable
a factor or element of an experiment that may be manipulated or measured p. 4
284
Visceral muscles organs glands
the body’s non-skeletal muscles, organs and glands p. 92
285
Vision
the sensory system which allows us to see our internal and external environment p. 307
286
Visual constancy
our ability to perceive visual objects as staying the same even though the sensation of the objects may change p. 312
287
Visual illusion
the perception of a visual stimulus in a way that conflicts with how it is in physical reality p. 327
288
Visual perception principles
guiding rules that apply to visual signals and determine how they are organised and interpreted p. 310
289
Voluntary participation
the right of the participant to willingly choose to participate p. 36
290
Wernicke’s area
the area of the temporal lobe responsible for the comprehension of speech p. 122
291
Withdrawal rights
the right of the participant to leave the study at any point, without fear of consequence p. 36
