Exam Revision Flashcards

Question

What are the ways of studying Infant Perception?

Answer 1

1) Visual Preference - measure how long a baby looks at 2 pictures (Fantz 1958) and preference implies discrimination 2) Habituation - presenting 1 picture over and over until bored to see if there is a renewed interest - implies visual memory

Answer 2

Fantz et al 1960s = 2 day old infants discriminate between patterned and unpatterned stimuli Fantz and Miranda = 1 week old infants show a preference for curvy shapes rather than straight Fantz and Fagan = 2 months infants prefer more complex patterns suggesting improved visual acquity results in greater interest

Answer 3

One of the most important stimuli and is advantageous for survival and learning - Langois et al 1990/1991 = prefer attractive faces - Walton et al 1992 = prefer mothers face from birth (sucked dummy more) - Pascalis et al 1998 = no discrimination is hairline covered - Sai 2003 = recognition of mother's voice turns attention to face - Simion et al 2001 = babies prefer up-down asymmetery and congruency as it is more similar to human faces - Turati 2004 = schematic analysis found faces important for development - Johnson et al 1991 = babies less than an hour old tracked faces better than scrambled/blank faces - Meltzoff and Moore 1977 = 12-21 days old can imitate facial expressions

Answer 4

- Faces display stimulus characteristics that are inherently appealing such as high contrast, top heavy, move, dynamic - Morton and Johnson 1991 = we are born with "innate face detecting" brain mechanism that directs attention specifically to face-like recognition - Despite the different accounts, all suggested mechanisms ensure that newborns attend to faces and this visual input helps the development of an increasingly sophisticated face-processing system

Answer 5

Campos et al 1992 - HR difference in those who could / could not crawl - Learning not to move onto the cliff was gained via experiences with crawling - Experiences in walkers linked to showing fear in response to depth in infants who cannot Even though not showing fear change in HR acknowledges some form of depth perception in early age and independent of locomotion

Answer 6

Focus on the voice/speech which one considered important for the development of attachment/language. Begins to develop before birth - foetal reactions to sound from 20 weeks and a near term foetus can differentiate between male/female voices - preference for mothers voice, especially how it would have sounded in the uterus - prefer own language to others - At 1 month can distinguish between "ba" and "pa" sounds - At 6 months can discriminate between 2 syllables - Up to 6 months = discriminate all sound contrasts that appear in all languages, but this ability disappears by 12 months, corresponds to rapid pre-programmed growth of synapses followed by synaptic pruning

Answer 7

Steiner 1979 = newborns respond differently to basic tastes Rattaz et al 2005 = 1 week old can distinguish body odour of mother and stranger Touch/motion is one of the most sophisticated senses at birth and is fine tuned during the first year

Answer 8

How early can infants integrate sensory info across more than 1 modality to perceive it as one event e.g. matching mouth movements to sound - Spelke 1979 = 4 months connect rhythms with movement - Pickens 1994 = 5 months connect sound and sight in motion

Answer 9

How early can an infant learn something via one sense and transfer that info to another sense e.g. recognise a toy by touch although it has only been seen before

Answer 10

Experienced/expressed by all humans and each comprimises of differentiable, distinct feature e.g. facial expressions, physiological patterns and subjective feelings - Happiness, Anger, Fear, Surprise, Sadness, Disgust

Answer 11

Dependant on interactions between affective and cognitive processes and influenced by experience, learning and socialisation - Guilt, Shame

Answer 12

In a dynamic system, components influence and change each other via the process of self-organisation - For most, the result of self-organisation is more flexible, efficient was of functioning - The outcomes of self-organisation are called attractor states = emotions/mood/personality - For example, emotion comprises of different components like facial expressions, physiological behaviour, instrumental behaviour, subjective experiences which all develop independently with different trajectories but come together in different contexts

Answer 13

Studied people living in New Guinea who were unexposed to Western Media and had them identify correct emotional response to a story - Child = all sig results - Adult = highly sig results, had difficulties distinguishing fear and surprise

Answer 14

Valente and Gentaz 2017 = blind and seeing athletes gave the same facial expressions after losing a match - Congenitally blind people can produce similar spontaneous emotional facial expressions to seeing people, but have trouble producing voluntary emotional expressions

Answer 15

- No invariant linkage between emotional expression and emotion in unborn foetuses - Foetuses produce a variety of facial expressions including smiles and pain expressions in non-painful ultrasounds - Findings for prenatal facial expressions align with a dynamic systems view of emotional development

Answer 16

Gave a 4 month old a stimuli which elicits a responses e.g. tickle = joy, jack-in-a-box = surprise, masked stranger = fear - Only Joy and Surprise had the correct most common emotion e.g. disgust = sadness and anger, Fear = surprise - Little support for dynamic emotion theory of situation specificity

Answer 17

0-2 months = Smile in Sleep (Dandi et al 2007) 2 months = Social Smile 2-6 months = Interactive Smiling (Messinger et al 2010) 6-18 months = Referential Smiling Across Childhood = specific use of Duchenne Smiles in social success

Answer 18

- Four emotion contrasts = sadness/disgust, sadness/anger, anger/disgust, happiness/surprise - Examination of within valence contrasts - Across Boundary = 40% vs 60% - Within Boundary = 20%/80% vs 40%/60%, compare emotions on one side of the scale but different levels - Exp 1 results = sig for sadness/disgust and happiness/surprise but not the other 2 - Exp 2 results = habituated children to 60% faces of 1 emotion then showed a face which crossed the border soent more time looking at the newer face but not for anger/disgust

Answer 19

Facial expression recognition reached adult levels by 11 years old - Vocal emotion recognition continues to develop inter late childhood/adulthood - implications for programmes aiming to improve child's socio-emotional competence

Answer 20

Vocal info was important and more impactful than face, as those who did cross in voice only crossed much faster than face only - Face + Voice = crossed the cliff drop, smiled, vocalised - Face Only = faced the cliff, smiled, nodded - Voice Only = did not face the cliff, continued watching TV, vocalised

Answer 21

I) Recognition = recognising/naming of emotional expressions II) External Cause = understanding how external causes affect the emotions of another III) Desire = emotional reactions depend on their desire IV) Belief = a person's belief determines their emotional reaction V) Reminder = relationship between memory and emotion e.g. intensity decreases with time VII) Regulation = behaviour strategies or psychological strategies VII) Hiding = discrepency between expressed and felt emotion VIII) Mixed = a person may have multiple or even contradictory emotions IX) Morality = negative feelings from morally reprehensible situation or positive feelings for praiseworthy situation

Answer 22

Phase 1 = 5 year olds = Recognition, Reminder, External Cause = understanding of important public aspects of emotion Phase 2 = 7 year olds = Desire, Belief, Hiding, Mixed = understanding of mentalisatic nature of emotions Phase 3 = 9-11 = Regulation, Morality = understanding of multiple perceptions and regulation

Answer 23

Test of Emotion Comprehension used to investigate understanding of emotion - Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported original psychometric structure based on 3 developmental domains - External, Mental, Reflective

Answer 24

"emotional responses dependent upon the interaction between trait capacities and state influences. Empathetic processes are automatically elicited but are also shaped by top-down control processes. The resulting emotion is similar to perception and understanding of the stimulus emotion with recognition than the source of emotion is not one's ...."

Answer 25

Parenting = sensitivity, empathy, socialisation Attachment Mechanisms = internal working models, parent/child discourse, emotional/self regulation capacities, neurbiology Moderators = Individual (gender, temperament, genetics), Dyadic (socialisation, emotional cues), Group (membership, norms), Societal (culture, bioecological context) Child Empathy

Answer 26

1) Attention Focus 2) Reappraisal 3) Suppression, Gullone et al 2010 = lower likelihood as age increases, most common in men

Answer 27

- Between 12-15, increase in maladaptive strategies e.g. giving up, withdrawal, rumination, self-destruction, aggressive actions - And a decrease in adapative strategies e.g. problem solving, distraction, forgetting, acceptance, humour, re-evaluation

Answer 28

Measured 7 strats = adaptive emotion regulation, social support seeking, passivity, avoidant regulation, expressive suppression, dysfunctional ruminantion suppression - Found age different in expressive suppression in sadness and fear, but not anger - Stepwise increase for fear in early adolescence to adulthood but sadness fluctuates but maximum use in early adolescence - 15 = least likely to use emotion regulation strats when experiencing sadness/anger in comparison to 11, 19 and adult groups - Less strat used for fear in 13-15 in comparison to all age groups - All adult groups had no sig dif in strat repetoire - Post Hoc = passivity only appeared when feeling sad/angry (not fear), U shape for passivity and sadness between 11-25, decreased for fear from 11-25

Answer 29

0 months = cooing 6 months = duplicated babbling e.g. "dadadada" 12 months = first word e.g. "dada" 2 Years = 2 word combo e.g. "daddy gone!" 3 Years = multi-word utterance e.g. "where has daddy gone?" 4-5 Years = questions, complex sentences, conversation

Answer 30

1) Comprehension 2) Production = phonology, semantics, grammar, pragmatics

Answer 31

1) Skinner 1957 - children are reinforced with gramatically correct speech - adults shape child's speech by selectively reinforcing babbling which sounds most like words - once words have been shaped, reinforcement is witheld until child starts to combine words 2) Bandura 1971 - children listen and imitate language of older companions - caregivers "teach" via modelling

Answer 32

1) Chomsky - Language Acquision Device = an inborn lingustic processor that is activated by verbal input and contains universal grammar 2) Slobin 1985 - Language-Making Capacity = a set of cognitive/perceptual abilities that are highly specialised for language learning

Answer 33

- Complex interplay between bio maturation, cog development and lingusitic environment - Children across the world develop language at a similar pace as we are all from the same species and have similar experiences - Children are biologically prepared to learn language as they have a brain that matures slowly, which gives children more to talk about - Language develops to communicate with other people

Answer 34

Left Hemisphere = damage can cause aphasia - Brocca's area = production - Wernicke's area = comprehension Genie = had no language development due to no communication as a child and being punished if tried. When later taught language at 13, she was incapable signifying a sensitive period. - Johnson and Newport 1989 = immigrants who moved to the US when 3-7 spoke as well as natives but this decreased with age

Answer 35

Child-Directed Speech (Stern, 1990) - close proximity, exaggerated facial expressions, repetition, eye contact, higher pitched voice - natural in most cultures - gradually increase length and complexity Non-verbal games help teach turn taking

Answer 36

DeCasper and Spence 1986 - children start to process sounds in the womb 1-2 month = discriminate between different phaemes Werker and Tees 2005 - across different languages - neural commitment - 6-8 months are able to discriminate similarly Hindi/Salish words but this skill drops with age

Answer 37

- Different patterns of crying, increasingly social in nature - From 1 month = begin to coo making repetitive vowel sounds signalling pleasure, proto-conversation with mothers talking after child to signal turn taking (Bateson 1975), evolves into triadic interactions when infants point to objects 1) Proto-Imperative = request for an object/action 2) Proto-Declarative = comment on an object/act

Answer 38

- Receptive language is evident before expressive - Fenson 1994 = 10 months/30 words but 13 months/100 words - Bergelson and Swingley 2012 = infants begin associating highly familiar words with references surprisingly early e.g. 6-9 months knew meanings of common nouns but parent's didn't realise - Learning is constraint = whole object constraint, mutually exclusive constraint, Mather and Plunkett 2010 = correlation of more general constraints and attention/learning - OR children construct a "semantic system" because words are related to one another = facilitated by acquisitions of relations, learn that objects can be referred to as more than 1 word and how words related to one another e.g. opposites, synonyms - Condense Meaning = Holophrase Period (12-18 months) and Overextension - Goldfield and Reznick 1990 = verbal spurt at 16-24 months - Nelson 1973 = over 50% of the first 50 words you learn are general nominations, then specific meanings, then actions

Answer 39

Parents/Experiences - Label/stress/repeat new words - Playing naming games - New words depending on context - Spatial Consistency = learn label quicker in same location Children - Fast Mapping = process of rapidly learning new words from context - Pragmatic cues - Inferring meaning by taking cues from linguistic context and synaptic bootstrapping - Cross situational word learning with repeated correspondance

Answer 40

Fenson et al 1994 = very strong correlation between vocab size and complexity of sentences 2-3 years = less telegrahic speech (shot, simple, grammar errors), add inflections (e.g. ing to verbs), form Qs, may create forms of words which they have not heard but follow their understanding of grammar e.g. overregularisations = applying basic rules to irregular words e.g. goed or broked 3-4 = form complex sentences using conjunctions and embedded clauses 4+ = further refinements

Answer 41

Hart and Risley 1995 = children from a professional social class had a higher cumulative vocab, words and parent utterance per hour than working class kids or those on welfare DeLoache et al 2010 = infants who learn from parents performed best in word learning but those who learnt from video conditions did not learn better than controls

Answer 42

1) Modelling and Observation = behaviour and emotional expressions 2) Social Signals = response and engagement can convery social/emotional info 3) Managing Interactions = parents shape interactions with their children

Answer 43

1) Imitation = learn via emotional expression, participate/manipulate interactions, social connection, creates connections 2) Still Face Exp = children will try to trigger a response if given a confusing facial reaction to a stimuli 3) Social Referencing = we observe others in ambiguous situations e.g. Visual Cliff

Answer 44

1) Attachment Behavioural System - Fearch et al 2016 = towards goal proximity - Feel threatened = achieve proximity to caregiver to relieve stress 2) Exploration System - Breatherton 1997 = familiarity preserving and stress reducing behaviour systems increase safety whilst novelty/info seeking systems put us at risk

Answer 45

Internal Working Model - framework for understanding continuities in attachment behaviour across context and time - 1 year = develop a secure base script providing causal temporal prototype of the ways attachment related events unfold - Is a mediating mechanism by which early experience is carried forward

Answer 46

Phase 1 = 0-3, non-focused orienting Phase 2 = 3-6, focus on one or more figures Phase 3 = 6-24, secure base behaviour, fear strangers, separation anxiety (9), social referencing (11) 2 onwards = internalised attachment experiences, form internal working models of relationships

Answer 47

- Lab, reliably assess 12-24 months - obs of infant beh during a sequence of episodes which parent and child separated - beh reflects organised strategy of exploration, comfort seeking, weariness and being comforted - created 4 attachment styles

Answer 48

1) Secure = missed parent when separated, actively greets them upon return (smile/vocal), if upset seeks contact, returns to exploring 2) Insecure Avoidant = not very distressed when separated, avoidance/stiffening when reunited, interested in distractions to ensure distance 3) Insecure Resistance = unsettled/distressed upon separation, too upset/angry/rejected when reunited, fails to find comfort 4) Disorganised = (Main and Solomon 1990) no clear pattern of beh, inconsistent, attachment exists but not good quality, Duschinsky 2015 = secondary classification of Insecure Resistance

Answer 49

Van Ijzendoorn et al 1999 = middle class samples - 62% = secure, 15% = Insecure-Avoidant, 15% = disorganised, 9% = Insecure-Resistant In high risk samples, disorganised attachment can rise up to 50% Van Ijzendoorn and Sagi-Schwartzs 2008 - consistent across culture in secure but different in insecure

Answer 50

1) Autonomous (secure) = describe childhood/parents objectively, flexible regardless of supportive or difficult memories 2) Dismissing (avoidant) = defensively distance themself from emotional content, normalise harsh experience, idealise parents 3) Preoccupied (anxious) = confused/ambivalent towards parents, emotionally overwhelmed, angry/enmasked narratives 4) Unresolved = unable to resolve feelings related the death of loved one or abuse/neglect they may have suffered Fraley 2002 = moderate stability in attachment security but sig weaker in at risk samples

Answer 51

1) Sensitivity to child's care 2) Interpret the cues appropriately 3) Timely response 4) Appropriate response Fearon et al 2016 - Secure = responsive/sensitive mother, appropriate expectations, emotionally available, attuned to signals - Avoidant = rejecting or withdrawing mother, child minimises attachment behaviour - Ambivalent = inconsistent/unreliable mother, child heightend expression of emotion - Disorganised = frightening, confuding, abusive and unpredictable parent

Answer 52

Mind-Mindedness (reading signals correctly) was a better predictor of attachment security than sensitivity

Answer 53

- Security was associated with higher levels of social competence and lower levels of internal/externalisation - modest to moderate effect size - effects of early attachment didn't wane over childhood

Answer 54

Secure Children = more regulated/sociable/socially competent so naturally less anxious/withdrawn. They also showed better understanding of others emotions, prosocially and empathetically. Meta Analysis = stronger effect sizes on social competence and externalisation than internalisation

Answer 55

1) Parenting Practices = specific aspects of problem solving e.g. smacking, time out etc 2) Dimensions = warmth, support, control, cross-sectional research 3) Styles = typological approach, characteristicity, general approach

Answer 56

1) Authoritarian = High Demand, Low Responsiveness - focus on obidience, parental control, no discussion, harsh punishments 2) Authorative = High Demand, High Responsiveness - create positive relations, enforce rules, warmth, open communication, ecourage discussion 3) Permissive = Low Demand, High Responsiveness - doesn't enforce rules, freedom, parent is interested but no demands 4) Uninvolved = Low Demand, Low Responsiveness - little nurturance/guidance, disinterested, look for parent's needs

Answer 57

School Grades = Authoritative, Permissive, Authoritarian, Uninvolved Delinquency = Uninvolved, Permissive, Authoritarian, Authoritative

Answer 58

Small effect sizes for: - authoritative decreased externalisation - internalisation least in authoritative and small in permissive - self esteem very low in authoritarian and uninvolved - academic achievement in authoritative - age and ethnicity moderated, ethnicity mainly moderated internalised

Answer 59

Uninvoled and Authoritarian = decreased Permissive = increased

Answer 60

Effects are dependent on whether they are consistent with sociocultural expectations and environment - some variation but usually more similar than different - authoratitive is best across culture - Chao 1994-2001 = variation due to priority of qualities and outcomes - Lawsford et al 2005 = weaker effects of corporal punishment on countries where it is prevalant - Chao 1994 = Baumrind's parenting styles amy not be relevant in Asian/Asian-American cultures as strictness and warmth have different meanings - Permissive parenting is likely to be context specific as Western Europe and Latin Amercia = good internalisation but bad in N America

Answer 61

Focuses on interactions among the developing person and context. Interaction between child factors (genetics, temperament), proximal systems (family, friends) and distal systems (health services, school curriculum, culture). Parent's work within these systems - Microsystem = child's immediate environment - Mesosystem = connections between immediate environment - Exosystem = external settings which impact indirectly on their environment - Macrosystem = wider cultural context e.g. ideology - Chronosystem = patterns of event/transition in a person's life

Answer 62

Parenting, child development and marital relationship doesn't exist in isolation. They each affect one another in bi-directional relationships

Answer 63

Broader system of how family members interact with various relationships - Children are not niave to this - Families are complex and social units whose members are interdependent - Direct vs Indirect influence - Perception of such affects self esteem and importance

Answer 64

SES = more associated with authoritarian, stress reduces capacity to think about child's needs so bring in quicker compliance/discipline Stress = Zussman 1980 = less positive and warm when stressed Mental State = Hay et al 2010 = children of mothers with PND were lower in numeracy, more likely in Special Ed, externalisation, conduct

Answer 65

Bos et al 2016 - children of same-sex parents are not different from hetero parents in terms of adjustment, personality, relationships with peers and academic performances Amato 2010 - even though divorce is disruptive and place greater risk on behaviour and achievement problems, most adjust well - determined by the amount of quality contact post divorce

Answer 66

Response to a stimulus declines with repeated exposure - Dinix et al 2009 = foetuses show habituation to a vibroacoustic stimulus as early as 30 weeks - Highly adaptive mechanism allowing us to learn about new stimuli

Answer 67

Lipsitt and Haye 964 - neutral tone paired with breast, 2-3 year olds would make sucking motions to the tone Blass et al 1984 - infants show extinction as young as 2-24 hours old

Answer 68

In older children, classical conditioning can affect preferences - Field 2006 = a neutral stimulus can be conditioned via a cartoon character or sugary food and will be liked more than if paired with vegetables. Some evidence of extinction is cartoon is shown without vegetable but takes a while to return to normal and usually doesn't fully. Only dampens the response, not erase

Answer 69

Lipsett et al 1966 - sucking can be operantly conditioned via sugar solution Kalnins and Bruner 1973 - 5-12 weeks to keep a movie in focus Children as young as 4 will turn their head to obtain sucrose water

Answer 70

Ribbon is tied to ankle and to a mobile, so when infants naturally kick their legs it turns to mobile. This association will be learnt, so the child will move their leg more often

Answer 71

Meltzoff and Moore 1977 = newborns can immitate Costenbroek et al 2016 = dispute this But by 6 months, show clear signs of complex imitation

Answer 72

- Cannot give a verbal response until 1 year old - Researchers must rely on innovation - Early childhood is a time of rapid cog growth but different stages grow and different paces - Declarative Memory = Somatic (foetus, knowledge of the world develops early but less deficits with age) and episodic (memory of our personal experiences, develops later in childhood and worsens with age) - Implicit = procedural memory

Answer 73

Kisilevsky et al 2003 = foetuses can recognise their mothers voice 1-2 weeks before birth Fantz 1964 = visual paired comparison task used due to little motor skills needed Pascalis and de Schoren 1994 = novelty response seen at post-natal age 3 with 2 min retention interval Morgan and Hayne 2006 = encoding gets faster with age

Answer 74

- Spacing Effect = having 2 practice trials further apart produced better retention - Misinformation Effect = introduction of a 2nd mobile reduced the likelihood of remembering the first - Rouee-Collier and Boller 1995 = retention interval increases with age, 6 month = 2 weeks, 12 months = 2 months

Answer 75

1) Memory Efficiency - memory processes improve with age e.g. working memory capacity, so learning becomes more efficient - Kial 1991 = digit span increases from 2 (2yr) to 6 (9yr) 2) Memory Strategies - learn effective strategies (elaboration, rehearsal, organisation) with age - DeLoache et al 1985 = as young as 18 months, verbally rehearse location of hidden object

Answer 76

Later development of brain regions crucial for memory and learning (hippocampus)

Answer 77

Around 14-15, memory becomes more adultlike, working memory capacity increases and are able to integrate meaning into episodic memory - Holliday et al 2008 = incorporating meaning leads to a richer memory but can make older children more susceptible to illusions - Deese-Koediger-McDermott (DRM) Procedure = remember a list of words all linked to 1 unsaid word. Older children more likely to report said word

Answer 78

- From roughly 5, children know what is easy and difficult for them to learn seen via JoL - Shin et al 2007 = children consistently overestimate the no of pictures they could recall over multiple lists and these over-confident children had greater gains in recall than those with less confidence - Bjarklund and Green 1992 = "Adaptivity Hypothesis" = overconfidence helps keep children engaged with difficult tasks - Schneider and Loffler 2016 = by around 7-8, children will choose to restudy items they gave lower JoL to more often than higher JoL

Answer 79

Gallese and Sinigaglia 2011 = ability to make inferences about mental states (emotions, intentions, beliefs) - Subcomponent of social cognition -> helps develop skills to manage social communication and relationships, allows us to make sense of the social world by predicting/explaining people's behaviour by thinking about internal states

Answer 80

1) Behavioural = early life 2) Psychological = 10ish 3) Organise relationships = early teens

Answer 81

That by 18 months children were able to understand that other people may have different preferences/likes than themself; seen via vegetables

Answer 82

Requires us to be aware that 1/other people can represent the surrounding world. but this representation can differ from reality - Shift from a situation-based to a representation-based understanding of behaviour - Based on Belief-Desire Reasoning - I act in a way which will make something happen based on the understanding of other's perception Perception -> Belief -> Action -> Consequence Emo/physio -> Desire ->

Answer 83

1) False-Belief Task = scenario in which someone's knowledge about the world is different to the actual state - Observers prediction is based on either what they know about the content of an individual's mind OR what they know to be reality 2) True-Belief Task = can children know what another person believes, and that belief matches their own or reality

Answer 84

1) Unexpected Transfer Task - Wimmer and Perner 1983 = where is the chocolate? cupboard or the fridge? Compare reality to memory 2) Sally Anne Task - Baron-Cohen et al 1985 = marble / block task 3) Deceptive Box Task - Perner et al 1987 = what's in the smarty container, children over 4 said smarties whilst under said pencils (actually pencils) - Gopnik and Astington 1988 = 3-4 would aknowledge their false belief

Answer 85

4+ are successful at False-Belief tasks suggesting ToM develops at this age, but sometimes younger children can perform better - Lack of evidence doesn't imply lack of competence - Language abilities and how Qs are phrased play an important role in understanding the tasks - Siegal and Beattie = use temporal marking

Answer 86

Most FB tasks require children to evaluate their explicit knowledge on a certain matter - Implicit = does child know x is and how y works vs what is the child's spontaneous response (e.g. gesture, eye moevements, emotions) - Children's facial expressions = indices of understanding beliefs - Moll et al 2016 = children may be aware of the conflict but cannot express it linguistically but there are signal in 3yrs - Recording eye gaze may give us hints of child's flow of thinking - Clements and Perner 1994 = children develop an implict/unconscious understanding of FB at an earlier age than explicit/conscious understanding

Answer 87

- Infant familiarise with an event - Test behaviour presented is consistent or inconsistent with this event - Infants look longer at inconsistent event as evidence that they are surprised - Indicates some knowledge of what should have happened

Answer 88

15 months watched an actor place a watermelon toy in a green box and leave a yellow box empty and repeat until bored - 4 Belief Introduction Trial 1) True Belief = actor and child saw toy didn't move to yellow 2) True Belief = actor and child saw toy be moved 3) False Belief = actor didn't see toy get moved to yellow 4) False Belief = actor saw toy get moved to yellow, but NOT get moved back to green - 2 test trials 1) Actor looks for toy in yellow or green 2) some were correct and some were incorrect - 15 months seemed to realise others can act on the basis of their own beliefs and that these beliefs are representations may or may not mirror reality -> children looked more at the wrong answer so were more surprised

Answer 89

Probability of responding accurately to a FB task increases with age - develops gradually and start verbalising correctly at 3 1/2 - situations with a deceptive motive improves performance at all ages and improves if child actively partakes

Answer 90

1) Biological Maturation - brain system involved = executive functioning, language/comprehension, memory, attention 2) Social/Cultural - life experiences with people differ with everyone 3) Neurodivergence

Answer 91

Charman et al 2000 - joint attention skills in 20 months predicted ToM at 31/2 years and 8 month Development of brain systems involved in executive functions (mainly frontal lobes) is still ongoing during childhood/adolescence e.g. prefrontal lobes are one of the last regions to mature

Answer 92

Sabbagh et al 2007 - inhibitatory control correlates positively to FB tasks and improves between 3 and 6 Task Switching = more from real world to abstract representation Working Memory = holding different/contradicting representations in mind and manipulate this info to come to the correct answer

Answer 93

Social Referencing = Source et al 1985 = 12m monitor parental emotional reaction to ambiguous sitation to regulate behaviour Conversation = Harris 1999 = talk and reflect on other's mental states help children require vocab needed Older Siblings/Parents = Perker et al 1994 = talk about mental states Cross Cultural = Callaghan et al 2005 = no evidence

Answer 94

Meins et al 2002 - tendency to comment appropriatley on infant's mental state, desire, knowledge and thoughts - better ToM predicted when 4 after an observed free-play session if increased maternal mind-mindness at 6 months

Answer 95

Caputi et al 2011 - longitudinal study of 84 children from 5-7 - ToM Test and Test of Emotion Comprehension to mark ToM and Test for Perception and Grammar for verbal ability - Teachers rated prosocial behaviour - children who showed less pro-social behaviour were more likely to be rejected - ToM was stable across time and reduced rejection

Answer 96

Baron-Cohen 1985 = 80% didn't take into account Sally's false belief, even when older than 4 and it wasn't due to learning difficulties as ppts with Downs Syndrome didn't fail - assigning meaning to a stimuli but only report descriptic stimuli if have autism - struggle with the Smarties task - good specificity = ToM differentiated between neurotypical and neurodivergents - Not very universal = if higher verbal mental age then more likely to pass (Happe 1995), cannot be considerred a primary deficit, double empathy

Answer 97

1) Early = 11-14, period of rapid pubertal change, mostly associated with physical changes driven by hormones 2) Middle = 14-16, pubertal changes now nearly complete, psychological changes start e.g. social roles assured 3) Late = 16-18, achieves full adult appearance and roles, start working/interacting with adults, adult-like interests

Answer 98

Physical = growth, maturation of sex organs Psychological = cog development (Piaget, abstract reasoning, hypothetico-deductive thinking), identity (major achievement, characterised by states of confusion, not fully independent as still live with parents, defining who you are value-wise) Social = role transition, responsibility

Answer 99

Primary = sex organs involved with reproduction Secondary = develop later in life, usually during puberty, further growth/maturation of organs to become fertile

Answer 100

Hormones - presense of Y chromosome determines development - genes control production of hormones - Estrogen/Progesterone = "female", realeased by ovaries, menstration, pregnancy - Androgrens e.g. testosterone = "male", released by testes, muscle/body growth, facial hair - endocrine system is complex and heavily involved in sexual maturation

Answer 101

Spermarche = pubic hair, first ejacutation (13-14), voice changes, facial hair Menarche = breasts enlarge, growth in height, armpit hair, hips wider than shoulders, first period (12, irregular, not fully fertile)

Answer 102

Psychological and Social changes - time of sexual exploration and experimentation - increased sex drive and more changes of partner - often concern in managing sexuality in social relationships e.g. uncertainty about expectations, body image concerns - improved cognitive capacities influence sexuality through self-reflection and perspective taking

Answer 103

Lewis et al 2017 - declining child conception over last 3 decades even though we are more sexually active - 1990-91 = 1 in 10 M+W - 2010-2012 = 1 in 5 W and 1 in 4 M ONS - 13,200 conceptions in under 18 in comparison to in 1909 where there was 45,495

Answer 104

Boyd and Bee 2019 = timing varies self esteem. Early maturing girls have lower self esteem due to loss of slenderness, socialness and "girly behaviour" whilst late maturing boys have lower self esteem/more anxious so become overly talkative and attention seeking to compensate, less likely to be come leaders. - Adjustment is important for positive psycho-social development - puberty moves men closer to the ideal but women further away

Answer 105

Emphasised social/environmental influences within a psychoanalytical framework - ego identity = develop personal identity, crucial for personality functioning, develop inner self continuity - Adolesence = 5th of 8th stages, - Identity v Role Confusion = 13-18, actively attempt to construct a stable sense of identity

Answer 106

Age Quality Social Focus Identity 0-1 Trust vs Mistrust Mother Hope = that world meets world 2-3 Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt Parents Will = Constraint and Choice 4-5 Initiative vs guilt Family Purpose = goal-directedness 6-12 Industry vs Inferiority Neighbour/School Competence = confidence 13-18 Identity vs Role Confusion Peer Group Fidelity = to be loyal 19-40 Intimacy vs Isolation Friendships Love = all types 41-60 Generativity vs Stagnation Household Care 60+ Ego intergrity vs Despair Humankind Wisdom

Answer 107

4 identity types 1) Identity Achievers = extensive soul searching, exploration has produced stable identity 2) Identity Monatoriums = engaging in self-exploration but not yet formed stable personality, most anxiety arises due to uncertainty about belonging and commitment 3) Identity Foreclosurers = automatically adopt others values without extensive critical reflection 4) Identity Diffusers = lack firm commitments, not acticely engaging in self-explortation, lack anxiety about themself/others, carefree

Answer 108

- ceremony or ritual to mark transition - puberty is an achievement - announce to the community with identity confirmation - typically involves four steps 1) Separation = learn to become their own person 2) Training = learn appropriate behaviour, acquire responsibility 3) Initiation = made aware of service to the community 4) induction = ceremony, formal annoucements, culture bound

Answer 109

Adult responsibility, lessen ambiguity by protection from alienation, bonding with community/society There is no formal equivalent in UK leaving adolescents more vulnerable to risky behaviour - Quinn et al 1985 = help transition through difficult times

Answer 110

Autonomy and less dependence on parents - right/power to self-govern, self-determination, indepedence - age appropriate freedom - parental report still necessary - create a relational dialogue to find balance in autonomy

Answer 111

1) As cog ability increases, perceptions of parents change too, see them as equal individuals 2) less time spent with them 3) More conflict = moodiness, rapid situational mood swings, irritability, "storm and stress"

Answer 112

Dynamic process of progressive and regressive structural changes 1) Infancy = lower order sensory cortices mature earliest with synapses forming rapidly due to sensory experiences 2) Childhood = parietal and temporal association cortices linked to spatial attention, language and memory 3) Adolescence/Early Adulthood = late maturing PFC involved in higher order cog processes (abstract thought, metacognition, mentalising, emotional self regulation), synaptic pruning is slowed

Answer 113

Casey et al 2005 = higher order cog processes including control and inhibition, increase activation in PFC but decrease activation in low level sensory and parietal lobe Adleman et al 2002 = Young Adults show greater PFC recruitment than adolescents in stroop test, may respons faster but less accurate

Answer 114

Social brain involved in recognising, understanding and interpreting social events in others; supported by the dmPFC, Inferior Frontal Gyrus and Amygdala - Mentalising = ability to understand/interpret mental states, feelings and actions of others supported by the temporal-parietal junction (focus attention), STS (face perception), ATC (storing facts of social situations) - Functional maturation and connectivity between the fronto-pareital and limbic system during adolescence increases cognition, mentalising and regulation

Answer 115

1) stronger connectivity in mentalising network duing social exclusion than inclusion - increased functional coupling during social exclusion might support the ability to consider the intention of others - successful adaption to cope with social interactions such as exclusion 2) Stronger network during exclusion related to lower FB density - felt more rejected if lower friend density - cognition parallels behaviour

Answer 116

Intimacy vs Isolation (19-40) - making long term commitments to an intimate partner - developing a sense of connection - lasting friendships - establishing solid work ties / collaborations; requires giving up some independence to develop a shared identity, cooperate not compete

Answer 117

Kahn et al 1985 = predicted enduring marital relationships Soulsby and Bennett 2015 = facilitated personal growth, but also involved feelings of depersonalisation Cookston and Remy 2014 = identity that is formed during marriage is challenged during divorce

Answer 118

Generativity vs Stagnation (41-60) - extended generativity = reaching out to others, living beyond yourself and immediate family, commitment to wider community - expressing personal values and goals by contributing to welfare of larger society - at work, we focus on developing others e.g. acting as mentors; requires willingness to take responsibility for the next generation, motivation to be productive/engaged and motivation for personal/professional development

Answer 119

McAdams et al 1993 = mostly associated with middle adulthood Twenge 2013 = todays emerging adults (millenials/Gen Y) sometimes labelled as "Generation Me" (preoccupied with self belief/regard/expression which has implications for development in middle adulthood

Answer 120

Pros - provides detailled, plausible insights into personality development across the adult lifespan (rather than fixed) - conceptualised the way young and old people approach and feel about life - good face validity = people can relate based on their own experience but not always true if measured Cons - too much focus on stages as crises - underestimate individual variability and effects of social class or gender - implies discontinuity of development, although some developmental challenges seem recurrent - critiques suggest changes not due to developmental stages but instead due to normative life events e.g. career change or relationships

Answer 121

Accounts for increases in people's life expectancy and the necessary changes that entails adult development - take an occupational approach; examining people's changing work-life structures and how these implicate human development and modern life design - the 100 year life - 50% of babies born in 2003 will live to 103, Japan = 107, USA = 103, Germany = 102

Answer 122

Health - aging associated with physical/cognitive decline - Fries et al 2011 = compression of morbidity in those with healthier lifestyles - longevity = staying younger for longer rather than older for longer Finances - trend towards working until older age

Answer 123

Education -> Explorer -> Independent Producer -> Work -> Transition -> Work -> Transition -> Portfolio -> Retirement Explorer = a new stage for emerging adults, achieved maturity and parental freedom but do not have adult responsibilities, ongoing identity formation, personal/professional development, socio-cultural construct largely experienced in westernised countries, influenced by SES/background, characterised by delayed commitments to relationships/career/childbirth Independent Producer = initiate start up e.g. online businesses/web services/selling, valuable experiental learning phase to complement theroretical knowledge, useful to develop business acumen and shape aspirations Work = time spent in employment, taking responsibility and earn an income, valuable period to accrue savings, fulfill career aspirations, personal dreams or find place in society Transition Phases = include career changes, reducing/taking time off work to engage in personal/professional development, building a family or reconnecting, serves as a restorative break after several years of work, sustain our health Portfolio = drawing on professional and life experiences, working on various projects, emphasis on richer personal rewards and social impact, consultancy or charity

Answer 124

Pros - offers solution to logevity regarding health, continued education, QoL and finances - age-agonisitc = age is less predictable of stage, more realistic and fits better - acknowledges that adult life is characterised by both change and contiuity Cons - methodology = based on individuals from a high SES background, well-educated, economically-advantaged - still in its infancy, largely considerred occupational development across the lifespan, while other areas in life co-exist implicitly

Answer 125

Cognitive Development - Fluid Intelligence = capacity to reason/learn/problem solve. Independent of education/experience. Tests of STM, reasoning and speed of thinking. Peaks at 20-30 then decreases - Crystallised Intelligence = learning an past experiences. Tests of vocab, general knowledge, verbal comprehension. Increases in late adulthood - lifelong learning/education/updating skills and knowledge e.g. technology - redefine leisure from recreation to re-creation - learning in adulthood is intensely personal and self-directed based on needs/desires, strong internal motivation Long-Term Planning - increasingly important in the face of longevity - invest in our future selves 1) Tangible Assests (money) 2) Intangiable Assests (health, education, relationships) - delayed gratification predicts future success and QoL (Mischel et al 1989 = Marshmallow Test) - Hershfield et al 2011 = seeing your future oldself increases saving behaviour

Answer 126

Genetic pre-programming of ageing (Finch and Tanzi 1997), explained at the level of DNA, cells, tissues and organs - Wear and Tear Theories = "ageing genes" refer to Telomere length in early life as a predictor for longevity as they shorten after each replication (Heidinger et al 2012) - Primary Ageing = irreversible and universal changes that occur with time e.g. impaired vision/hearing, sleep, appearance changes. All part of senscence/body slowing down and systems becoming less efficient. Declines over several years but speeds up in later life - Secondary ageing = caused by environmental influences or illnesses e.g. poor diet, lack of excerise, substance abuse, pollution, stress. It is selective and can be prevented or even reversed. It can be objective (frailty, weakened functioning, limited mobility) or subjective (percerived QoL). Moriarty et al 2005 = more unhealthy days is lower SES or a woman. Societal Factors = 1) Structured Dependency e.g. forced retirement up to April 2011 weakens financial and social status creating stress and 2) Productive ageing e.g. keep in work force longer, especially in recongition of life expectancy and have "phased retirement" Individual Factors = 1) Social/Environmental Contexts e.g. social support provided by neighbourhood and ageism and 2) Attitude towards ourselves e.g. positive/negative expectations and personal limitations

Answer 127

Discrimination or unfair treatment of older individuals in our society due to age stereotypes 1) Provision of goods and services = wider range of offers to younger people, media presents products targetted at younger audiences 2) Workforce = stereotypes about physical illness, cog decline/perceptual slowing may bias employment decisions, have a different skill set 3) Healthcare = triaging process might be dictated by age with faster treatments to those with a longer life expectancy

Answer 128

"ageing is an inevitable, mutual withdrawal or disengagement resulting in decreased interaction between the ageing person and others in the social system they belong to" (Cumming and Henry 1961) - claims ageing seen as a developmental task in itself with own norms and "appropriate" stereotyped patterns of behaviour - claims "appropriate" beh patterns involve a mutual agreement between the older person and society on a reciprocal withdrawal Components 1) Shrinkage of Life Space 2) Increased individuality, Uniqueness and More Alone Time 3) Acceptance of Change = older adults enjoy more select activites and fewer (but more emotionally meaningful) relationships in anticipation of remaining time (socioemotional selectivity)

Answer 129

- Not universal or certain - Different types e.g. physical, mental or social - perpetuates negative stereotypes - mostly outdated, no longer live with our current longevity and discredited

Answer 130

Successful management of ageing = financial security, access to good healthcare, safe housing, diverse social services, opportunities for lifelong learning Quality over Longevity = optimal physical, psychological and societal possibilities, offsetting problems and minimising challenges, ability to rearch personally valued goals

Answer 131

1) Good Health - factors predicting = engagement in rehabilitation and positive responses to health crises 2) Physical and Mental Actvity - Taylor 2014 = low impact physical e.g. wak, garden - Jorm et al 1998 = verbal intelligence and education correlate with physical health and engagement - Cognitive reserve 3) Engagement with life - Social = increased satisfaction with face to face contact (Guse and Masear 1999), perceived social support provide a positive outlook, feelings of mattering (Flett and Heisel 2021), independence and authority (Adams and Price 2017) - Productivty/Wealth = improves overall satisfaction (Glass and Jolly 1997), improves health (Krowse et al 1999), organisational volunteers benefits wellbeing and morality (Olwn et al 2010)

Answer 132

- Create a new ageist stereotype such as those with disabilities are incompetent - emphasis on successful ageing may reduce funding for medical research into treatments for conditions of "less successful" ageing - need balance between optimism and reality of old age

Answer 133

- Changed attitudes towards death over the last century to the institutionalisation of death and the positive impact of the introduction of hospice care - Dame Cicerly Saunders opened the first hospice in London 1967 to emphasise the importance of "good death" or "death with dignity" - The right to die = ending life-supporting treatment or medical aid in dying

Answer 134

6-7 Yr = children do not understand that death is permenant and irreversible Teens = understand physical aspects but may not understand their own mortality Young Adults = may continue to believe in own invulnerability/protection to and of death Mid-Life = fear of death peaks Older Adults = more likely to consider practical preparation to death

Answer 135

1) Denial - denying death's reality 2) Anger - a response to our perceived loss of control, represents strength an can be an anchor that gives temporary structure to emptiness 3) Bargaining - deals made with medical staff and/or God to stay alive to see events/landmarks 4) Depression/Despair - result from declining health, the individual needs to grieve for what they have lost or leaving behind 5) Acceptance - unless death is sudden, many will accept death calmly. Person's family at peace with the concept of death = signs of surrender

Answer 136

- Methodological concerns = details unclear, contact with patients, different ages, mostly cancer patients, how representative? - Five Stages Theory makes feelings about death more predictable than they are - No "best" approach to death; different themes may appear/reappear - Need to understand dying person's unique and individual experience

Answer 137

Bowlby 1969 = intense grief reactions from loss of attachment figure, stronger attachment = deeper and more prolonged grieving Bowlby and Parkes 1970 = Four Phases of Grief 1) Shock and Numbess 2) Yearning and Searching 3) Disorganisation and Despair 4) Reorganisation and Recovery

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