Exam Revision Flashcards

Question

SOURCES of law

Answer 1

Statute law: Parliament drafts a Bill to be passed through parliament. Bill will become a law when it's passed through both houses of Parliament and has been given Royal Assent by the Crown Common Law: -Courts have to wait for a case to be presented before them Unlike Parliament, judges cannot make law as an immediate response to a community demand. Courts can act only to interpret legislation and declare that legal principles apply to the facts of a case before them.

Answer 2

Appeal: Parties to a court case apply to have a higher court review a decision made by a lower court Specialization: Courts develop experience and expertise with the types of cases they deal with Administrative convenience: enables minor matters to be dealt with relatively quick and inexpensive- reduce delays Precedent- decisions in higher courts are binding on lower courts where material facts are similar

Answer 3

The Vic Court system is a structured hierarchy where each court has the power to hear matters within its jurisdiction. It supports appeal as it allows superior courts to review and alter previous decisions made by lower courts. Appeals wouldn't be possible if court hierarchy didn't exist as there would be no superior court to review and correct mistakes. Allows dissatisfied parties to have their case reheard in a higher court with specialization, promoting fairness and reducing unjust decisions. Court hierarchy in Victoria allow court staff to gain expertise in particular services or hearing cases through specialization. It assigns each court a defined jurisdiction, and the skills developed allows for more just and accurate outcomes. An example of specialisation is that the Supreme Court can specialise in hearing serious indictable offences such as murder, while the Mag court can specialise in hearing minor offences such as minor civil disputes. Furthermore, the Vic court hierarchy assists in administrative convenience, by separating minor offences and disputes such as traffic offences into lower courts, and more serious cases like terrorism into higher courts. This organises cases and distributes resources effectively, resulting in a more efficient and effective legal system. It also allows superior courts to spend more time on complex cases, and lower courts to quickly resolve minor disputes to minimise delays and provide better access to the legal system. The Vic Court Hierarchy also supports the doctrine of precedent, in which decisions made in higher courts are followed in similar future cases in lower courts. Courts must be ranked in order to uphold this principle. This promotes fairness in the justice system by ensuring 'like cases are decided in a like way' and provides certainty and predictability for parties in civil and criminal cases. It also ensures consistency in judges' decisions.

Answer 4

Criminal law: Body of law relating to acts or omissions against society. It aims to deter people from committing crimes and help people feel safe in their communities. Civil law: governs disputes relating to the rights of two parties (which can be individuals, or organisations), and aims to restore parties to the position they were in before their rights were infringed and they suffered injury or loss.

Answer 5

Criminal law is a body of law relating to acts or omissions committed against society, whereas civil law relates to a dispute between two private individuals or parties. In a criminal trial, the burden of proof rests with the state/prosecution to prove the accused is guilty beyond reasonable doubt. In a civil trial the burden of proof lies with the plaintiff to prove the parties/individuals liability. In a crim trial if the accused if found guilty they receive a sanction such as imprisonment or community correction order, whereas in a civil trial of the accused is found liable they must provide a remedy, usually a payment to the individual/party whose rights were infringed. In a criminal trial the standard of proof is beyond reasonable doubt which the prosecution has to prove the accused guilt, whereas in a civil trial the burden of proof is much lower and rests on the balance of probabilities.

Answer 6

In some cases, a fact scenario or actions/omissions by an individual or organization can lead to both criminal and civil action. -Victim can initiate a civil case as commission of a crime may infringe upon the rights of the victim protected under civil law, in addition to the criminal proceeding prosecuted by the State. -The two cases will be heard separately, and may be heard in different courts. Outcome of one does not affect outcome of the other. Guilty verdict in criminal case may provide a stronger basis for the plaintiff in civil action -standard of proof much higher in crim case than civil

Answer 7

Protecting Individuals: Criminal law establishes crimes and processes to deal with people who commit them. For example, murder laws protect individuals by holding offenders accountable by removing them from society (imprisonment). Protecting property: Criminal law aims to protect private and public property (including land and the environment). For example, it is an offence to trespass on, or steal someone else’s property. Deterrence of crime: Criminal law aims to deter offenders and other individuals in society from committing the same or similar crimes in the future by imposing a penalty Protecting society: Criminal law aims to protect the community as a whole by setting minimum behaviour standards that maintain public order/ community safety. For example, laws prohibiting drug, or terrorism offences. Protecting Justice: Criminal law promotes justice for ALL parties by providing processes to deal with offenders and enforce the law. This prevents victims and their families from taking the law into their own hands to punish an offender (retribution).

Answer 8

-establishes the law through statutes made by parliament and through court decisions -enforces the law through law enforcement agencies, such as the Victoria Police -determines guilt and innocence through the courts -imposes sanctions on offenders which aim, among other things, to punish offenders and deter others from committing crime

Answer 9

The presumption of innocence refers to the legal principle that a person accused of committing a crime is presumed innocent until proven guilty. Justice prioritises protecting the innocent, rather than punishing the guilty at all costs. The resource imbalance between the individual defendant and the more powerful state (Prosecution) Respect for the importance of preserving individual liberty, dignity and autonomy. -The presumption of innocence is enshrined in both legislation and common law. Beyond reasonable doubt is the standard of proof to which the defendant’s guilt must be proved in a criminal case. The prosecution must prove the accused is guilty beyond reasonable doubt, rather than the accused having to prove their innocence.

Answer 10

Actus reus: The guilty act or inaction- physical element Mens rea- the guilty mind - mental element

Answer 11

Strict Liability: a type of criminal responsibility that does not require the mens rea element of a crime to be proven for the offender to be found guilty. Strict liability offences are generally summary offences, which are less serious in nature and include not wearing a seatbelt and public transport fare evasion.

Answer 12

Age of criminal responsibility: the age at which the law considers a child capable of understanding their wrongful actions and therefore the age at which a child can face criminal charges. Children under the age of 10 cannot be arrested, charged, or found guilty of a crime because they are considered doli incapax meaning ‘incapable of evil’ because they are too young to understand the criminal nature of their actions such that the mens rea element of a crime cannot be satisfied.

Answer 13

Burden of proof: is the responsibility of a party to prove the facts of a case. In a criminal case, the prosecution has the burden of proving that the defendant is guilty of a crime to the criminal standard of proof, ‘beyond reasonable doubt’.

Answer 14

Standard of proof: is the degree to which the facts of a case must be proven in court. The standard of proof applicable in a criminal proceeding is ‘beyond reasonable doubt’ which requires the prosecution to prove there is no reasonable doubt that the accused is guilty of the crime they have been charged with.

Answer 15

Crimes against person: Criminal offences that involve a person being physically harmed or threatened with harm Crimes against property: Criminal offences that involve using force or deception to obtain, damage or destroy property

Answer 16

Summary offences are minor crimes heard and determined in the Magistrate's court, whereas indictable offences are more serious crimes that are generally heard and determined in higher courts before a judge and jury. When a person is charged with a summary offence in Victoria they are prosecuted by Victoria Police. Court proceedings used in summary offences are called ‘hearings’ and are less complex. When a person is charged with an indictable offence in Victoria, they will be prosecuted by the Office of Public Prosecutions. The court proceedings used in indictable offences are called ‘trials’. Summary offences are specified in legislation such as the Summary Offences Act, the Road Safety Act and other Victorian regulations and legislation. The Victorian Crimes Act lists indictable offences and their maximum penalties. Examples of summary offences include road traffic offences and minor assault, while some examples of indictable offences include murder and rape.

Answer 17

The principal offender is the person who commits the crime. According to the Victorian Crimes Act, anyone who is involved in the commission of an offence, whether it is indictable or summary, is considered to have committed the offence and is liable to the maximum penalty for that offence. This includes if they intentionally assisted, encouraged or directed the commission of the offence. A person can also be involved in the commission of an offence if they enter into an agreement, arrangement or understanding with another person to commit the offence

Answer 18

An accessory is a person who, without a lawful excuse, obstructs or hinders the apprehension/arrest, prosecution, conviction or punishment of the principal offender, despite knowing or believing that the offender is guilty of a serious indictable offence. An accessory can be found guilty of an offence regardless of whether the principal offender is also found guilty. You can only be charged as an accessory to a crime if the principal offender committed a serious indictable offence punishable by more than five years’ imprisonment.

Answer 19

Murder is the unlawful and intentional killing of a human being by a person who acted voluntarily and without lawful excuse. It is a common law offence and all elements must be proved beyond reasonable doubt for an accused to be found guilty.

Answer 20

UNLAWFUL The prosecutor must first establish or prove that the accused did not have a lawful reason for causing the other person’s death. Examples of lawful killing is a soldier killing an enemy in war VOLUNTARY The prosecution must prove the accused committed the acts when they were awake, aware and in control of their bodily actions. Otherwise, the mens rea for murder cannot be established. Cannot be an unintentional accident such as sleepwalking. CAUSATION Causation means there must be a direct or unbroken causal link between the accused’s actions and the death of the victim. The victim must also be a living person who has been born and is a living state, for example, not an unborn baby or an animal.It is not necessary for the accused’s actions to be the sole cause of death, but the accused’s actions must have contributed ‘significantly’ to the death. When establishing causation, we use the ‘but for’ test… would the person’s death have occurred ‘but for’ the defendant’s actions? INTENT TO KILL OR CAUSE SERIOUS HARM To prove murder, the prosecution must prove there was malice aforethought (ie an intention to cause death, or serious bodily harm)The state of mind that a person can have for malice aforethought to be established can exist in different forms: an intention to kill an intention to inflict serious injury a reckless indifference an intention to assault a person who was trying to make a lawful arrest (which resulted in that person’s death) an unintentional killing in the process of committing a violent crime (where punishment is 10+ years). Intentional murder – mens rea To prove the mens rea for intentional murder the prosecution must prove that when the accused committed the act(s), they either: Intended to kill someone or cause them really serious injury, or Knew that it was probable that death or really serious injury would be a result of their actions Reckless murder – mens rea Reckless murder is where the accused causes the death of another while acting with recklessness as to causing death, or grievous bodily harm. To establish recklessness the prosecution only needs to prove that: the death occurred; and it was reasonably foreseeable for the accused to realise their conduct would likely amount to death or grievous bodily harm.

Answer 21

A person accused of murder is able to maintain and protect their innocence by raising certain defences in court. To prevent a guilty verdict an accused can either: Cast doubt on one of the elements of murder, so the prosecution cannot prove the offence beyond reasonable doubt Raise a legal defence to justify their alleged criminal activity

Answer 22

In murder cases, the accused must believe their actions were necessary to protect themselves or another person from death or really serious injury. they believed that their actions were necessary in self-defence; and their conduct was a reasonable response in the circumstances as they perceived them

Answer 23

-self defence -mental impairment -duress -sudden or extraordinary emergency -automatism -intoxication -accident

Answer 24

A person is not guilty of murder if, at the time of the offence, they were suffering from a mental illness and as a result they: did not know what they were doing because they had little understanding of the nature and quality of their actions did not know their conduct was wrong or could not reason, or think about, their conduct like an ordinary person. The accused is presumed not to be suffering a mental impairment (i.e. is presumed to be sane) unless it can be proven otherwise. If the accused raises the defence of mental impairment the burden of proof is reversed (for proof of the defence only), meaning the accused must prove mental impairment. The standard of proof for mental impairment is ‘on the balance of probabilities’.

Answer 25

An accused may use duress as a defence to any criminal offence if, at the time of the offence they had a reasonable belief that: a threat of harm existed (for murder this must be to inflict death or really serious injury) that threat would have been carried out unless the offence was committed committing the offence was the only reasonable way to avoid the threatened harm; and Their conduct was a reasonable response to the threat An example may be when a victim of family violence intentionally causes injury to their partner in the belief their actions were the only reasonable way to avoid threat of harm.

Answer 26

A person is not guilty of murder if they act as a result of a sudden or extraordinary emergency. The person must reasonably believe that: there was a sudden or extraordinary emergency – in murder cases, must involve risk of death or serious injury their actions were the only reasonable way of dealing with the situation their actions were a reasonable response to the situation

Answer 27

An accused may use automatism as a defence to murder if they committed the murderous act involuntarily due to having, at the time of the offence, a total loss of control over their bodily movements (i.e. the accused was not conscious or aware of what they are doing) and so could not form an intention to commit a crime (mens rea). Automatism may be raised in a case where an accused commits an offence: while sleeping or sleepwalking while suffering concussion during an epileptic seizure, or as a result of a medical condition or because of a side effect of the proper use of medication

Answer 28

An accused may use intoxication as a defence to murder, if at the time of the offence, they acted involuntarily or without intent due to being in an intoxicated state as a result of consuming alcohol, taking drugs, or ingesting some other substance.

Answer 29

An accused may raise the defence that their actions were an accident. This would apply if the actions the accused took to commit the murder were involuntary, unintentional or reasonably unforeseeable by an ordinary person.

Answer 30

The sanction for murder is outlined in s. 3 of the Crimes Act 1958 (Vic) If a person satisfies the elements of murder, and cannot provide a defence, they may be liable to a maximum penalty of life imprisonment (level 1 imprisonment): Level 1 imprisonment is the harshest penalty that may be imposed for a crime. Life imprisonment does not mean the offender will spend their life in prison because the court generally sets a ‘non-parole period’, which is the minimum time the offender must be held in custody. After the non-parole period is served, the offender can be released under supervision and strict conditions. ‘Life imprisonment’ means the offender will serve a sentence (either in prison, or in the community) for the rest of their life. In circumstances the court considers an offender will pose an unacceptable risk to the community they can impose a life sentence with no parole (the offender will never be released).

Answer 31

The police force is directly responsible for maintaining law and order in the community. Their role is ‘to serve the community and uphold the law to promote a safe, secure and orderly society’ – in other words, to ensure social cohesion. The police do not make laws; they assist in enforcing them. The role and responsibilities of the police are to prevent crime, investigate crime and prosecute crime

Answer 32

Deterring people from engaging in criminal behaviour to reduce crime and protect society from harm. There are two primary methods of prevention: Police patrol areas and maintain a constant presence in the community. Police educate society and enact ‘proactive crime prevention’ e.g. visiting schools and community centres.

Answer 33

Identifying potential offenders and collecting evidence of their wrongdoing to assist with prosecution and sanctioning. Depending on the alleged criminal offence, police may be required to: Interview witnesses Search the crime scene Collect forensic evidence Question suspected witnesses

Answer 34

Charging those who have broken the law and commencing legal proceedings against them. For minor offences police can exercise discretionary power to issue a caution. Victoria Police prosecutes summary offences in the Magistrates Court. For indictable offences evidence collected during investigations is given to the Office of Public Prosecutions to run the case.

Answer 35

Delegated bodies are authorities or agencies given power by the Victorian or Commonwealth parliament to make and enforce laws. Their power to enforce laws is given by an Act of Parliament. Parliament does not have the time, expertise or local knowledge to make and enforce all the laws needed in the community. To overcome this problem, parliament delegates the power to make laws to a variety of delegated authorities or subordinate bodies. Parliament will do this by passing an Act (known as an enabling or parent Act). The enabling Act gives another body the power to make rules and regulations, which are known as delegated legislation. The overarching role of delegated bodies is to investigate, prosecute and enforce the law in their specific area. This allows them to develop expertise in relevant issues of law and lessen the burden of police work. Although parliament delegates the authority to make rules, it has the power to check the rules being made: if necessary, parliament can override delegated legislation.

Answer 36

Freedoms of an individual are important in the crim justice system, however police need power to prevent, investigate, and prosecute crime. One institutional power is police are able to use reasonable force during arrest. This is balanced with the individual right to be informed at the time of arrest why they are being arrested. This ensure police powers are balanced and they are only able to arrest those who have breached community values or broken the law, preventing them from abusing their powers.

Answer 37

-Determining a criminal case involves deciding the accused's guilt. The Magistrates court hears summary offences, while the County or Supreme courts handle indictable offences. The court hierarchy provides specialization and expertise in certain cases, managing the case and setting timelines. Certain Victorian courts can hear appeals following a guilty verdict.

Answer 38

-after offender is found guilty court sets date for a plea hearing -both parties make submissions about facts of the case and any other relevant factors that are taken into account in sentencing -following plea hearing judge or magistrate hands down a sanction

Answer 39

A jury is a panel of 12 randomly selected citizens that are compulsory in the Country and Supreme Court when an accused pleads 'not guilty' to an indictable offence. A jury listens to facts and evidence of a case and decides the guilt or innocence of the accused beyond reasonable doubt. They provide an impartial decision-making body and ensure offenders are tried in accordance with community values.

Answer 40

The difficulties faced by First Nation peoples in the criminal justice system are reflected in higher incarceration rates. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults account for 32% of the national prison population between 2021-2022, despite only making up 3.8% of the total population.

Answer 41

-offender is placed in a harsh environment where their liberty and movement is restricted -offender loses most of their contact with friends and family -often lose their employment and therefore any income while in prison

Answer 42

prisons harsh environment is likely to discourage offenders and members of the community from reoffending/committing a similar offence out of fear of receiving a similar sentence

Answer 43

-in reality prison is not extremely effective deterrent as in Vic the rate of recidivism is high approx 43.6% reoffending within two years

Answer 44

many prisoners who are released will reoffend. Therefore long-term community protection may be limited if the offender is not rehabilitated in prison

Answer 45

offender is removed from society they can no longer pose a significant risk to the welfare of the community or their victims

Answer 46

-sentence of imprisonment is the most severe and harsh sanction a court can impose. -courts condemnation is communicated -sometimes judges are able to impose a longer prison sentence to demonstrate their condemnation of the offenders criminal conduct

Answer 47

-prisons provide rehab programs such as drug and alcohol dependency programs, to assist the offender in addressing the underlying causes of their behavior and can break cycle of offending

Answer 48

-the need among prisoners for services to treat drug and alcohol addiction far exceeds those provided, often long waiting lists for access to such programs -many prisoners leave prison without addressing their alcohol or drug related issues -mental health issues that contributed to their offending may worsen when put in a harsh environment and isolating from friends and fam

Answer 49

circumstances considered in sentencing that reduces seriousness of the offence or the offenders culpability and lead to a less severe sentence -provocation over premeditation -offenders ager (young higher prospect of rehab) -first time offence/limited crim history -genuine remorse (apologies to victim, cooperation with police) -traumatic personal history (disadvantaged uprbinging)

Answer 50

-full admission by an accused person of an offence for which they have been charged -courts impose less severe sentence for guilty plea -sooner, the greater the sentencing discount -early saves resources and time

Answer 51

-circumstances considered in sentencing that can increase seriousness of an offence-result in more severe sanctioning -premeditated offence -use of violence or weapons -crime inspired by prejudice -'outnumbered' victim -infront of children -previous crim history

Answer 52

-for a judge to fully understand full impact of offence, victim impact statement may be submitted to the court -may mention injury, loss or damage suffered -severity of sanction may increase if greatly impacted victim -level of forgiveness may impose lesser sanction

Answer 53

-recent years Vic crim system adopted more flexible sentencing approach to address the needs of different groups in society -vic drug court established as a division of the Mag court -specialised court established to treat and rehabilitate offenders with a substance dependency though imposing a drug and alcohol treatment order (DATO) -intended to respond to failure of traditional methods of sentencing drug offenders to adequately address drug use and offending by directly addressing issues of dependency

Answer 54

-dependence of drugs and alcohol- directly contribute to offending - facing sentence or imprisonment less than 2 years -pleaded guilty -not sexual offence or inflicted harm -not on parole to encourage compliance and participation in the program can be offered incentives such as reduced time in custody

Answer 55

- councelling for addiciton -regular drug testing -weekly attendance to drug court max 2 year custodial sentence served if offender fails to successfully complete treatment phase of order -drug court has power to reward offender -failure to comply to conditions can result in sanctions such as unpaid community work or ordering custodial part of DATO be activated for specific time period -DATO can be cancelled if not willing to participate or continuation is unlikely to be effective

Answer 56

A fine is a monetary penalty that is paid by the offender to the State of Victoria (not the victim). The court can order the fine to be paid in instalments, and they are common for summary offences. A Community Correction Order (CCO) is a flexible order that allows an offender to serve their sentence in the community (i.e. it is non-custodial). However, CCO’s still require offenders to undertake specific actions and abide by certain conditions. Imprisonment is the deprivation of a person’s liberty by removing the oﬀender from the community. It is therefore known as a ‘custodial’ sentence. Imprisonment is seen as the most severe punishment available to courts and as such it is used as a last resort. It is used for the most serious crimes and for habitual reoﬀenders.

Answer 57

-independent of all parties to a case -randomly selected from community and have no connection to the victim, accused or witnesses. -Cannot seek additional information about the case beyond the courtroom. They should, therefore, be completely impartial which promotes fairness -In a jury trial, a diverse group of community members serves as the decision-makers, ensuring that the accused feels their case has been judged by their peers. This leads to a fair and just outcome that reflects the broader views and values of the community. -diverse group of community members serves as the decision-makers, ensuring that the accused feels their case has been judged by their peers. This leads to a fair and just outcome that reflects the broader views and values of the community.

Answer 58

-do not provide reasons for their decisions and therefore is no certainty they have applied the law to the facts correctly. This could be unfair for the accused persons and victims of crime -use of juries can create delays, which can be unfair on an accused and victims of crime as they may feel stress involved in the criminal trial, and could result in witness evidence being forgotten, or physical evidence being misplaced or deteriorating, therefore making this evidence unreliable

Answer 59

-Accused persons charged with summary offences, or indictable offences heard summarily do not have opportunity for their case to be heard and determined by a jury -every human has past experiences, prejudices and biases that are unavoidable even when a person is explicitly told to ignore them. Therefore no jury is truly impartial, which may result in an unequal decision if an accused person if found guilty on the basis of jurors' subconscious biases, rather than the evidence and facts presented in court.

Answer 60

-All accused persons charged with an indictable offence and pleading not guilty will have the same opportunity for a jury trial, with the cost covered by the courts, not the accused. This ensures equality regardless of socioeconomic status.

Answer 61

"Following judges' directions gives jurors greater access to courtroom processes and legal details, leading to improved understanding and engagement with the criminal justice system, resulting in more informed verdicts." -all accused persons charged with an indictable offence are able to access a trial by jury -jury trials enable members of the community to be involved in criminal proceedings and engage in the delivery of justice

Answer 62

-Time is consumed at various stages of the trial, including jury selection, resolution of legal issues, and longer jury deliberations. Mistrials or hung juries result in retrials that consume more court time. Additionally, few criminal matters are tried by a jury, as most are resolved in the Magistrate's Court. This means relatively few accused persons have access to a jury trial.

Answer 63

Strengths -All people charged by police officer and given a court trial presumed innocent until proven guilty -The prosecution has a duty to disclose all relevant evidence, even if it does not support its case. This ensures fairness as the verdict can be determined based on all the facts Weaknesses -Financially disadvantaged accused may be unable to present their case to the same extent as the prosecution, limiting the achievement of fairness -If evidence is not properly processed or misplaced the achievement of a fair trial may be limited, as the court will not be presented with an accurate case against the accused

Answer 64

-Judges and magistrates within crim justice system are impartial and independent referees to the court, meaning they determine the outcome of a case in an unbiased manner -judges and magistrates have specialised knowledge and skills as a result of hierarchy. enabling them to deliver consistent, fair outcomes in crim cases Limits -Delays exist and can cause backlogs in the crim justice system. Can reduce fairness for parties as it may cause physical evidence to decay or witness memories to fade over time

Answer 65

-Police officers and authorised officers within delegated bodies are required to remain impartial and offer the same treatment to all people suspected of breaking the law. Limits -police officers and authorised officers may carry subconscious biases against people with certain characteristics and therefore, restrict the equal treatment of all individuals

Answer 66

-court rules and procedures are enforced by judges and magistrates, who ensure they apply equally to both parties -both prosecution and accused have the right to appeal the outcome of a case, regardless of characteristics Limits -Appeals not equally accessible to the prosecution and accused due to high cost, which can cause socioeconomic discrimination

Answer 67

-distributing the workload of law enforcement amongst the police and delegated bodies can increase access to such services as it ensures resources are adequately spread and available -delays reduces as specialised delegated bodies are efficient in dealing with familiar matters repeatedly. Therefore, access to these institutions can increase Limits -cost, time and effort of engaging legal representation if charged by the police can be extremely burdening, decreasing a party's access to the crim justice system

Answer 68

-Specialised knowledge and expertise pf court judges and magistrates enhance access to justice as it allows criminal cases to be resolved in a more efficient, consistent way -court hierarchy promotes access to justice by providing an appeal process- provide access to a review from higher court Limits -Grounds for appeal must exist, therefore some crim cases may be ineligible for a review by higher court, meaning access to appeals are limited -appeals can result in more delays for the overburdened courts, limiting access to the timely delivery of justice

Answer 69

Murder is an act that has far-reaching consequences for society, affecting not only the victim but also witnesses, the accused, and the wider community. -loss of life -funeral costs -loss of trust in law & order, and community values -trauma and grief -guilt or shame -diminishment of family's social standing and wellbeing -feelings of fear and unsafety

Exam Revision Flashcards

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