Exam Revision Flashcards

Question

Research Methods: Self Reports: Diary Study

Answer 1

Participants respond to standardised questions, in a diary or notebook, at a specified time or whenever they are instructed to respond by prompt from an electronic pager. ⭐️Have proved invaluable for investigating a host of issues that may be difficult to study in other ways (e.g. The relationship between daily stressors and depression in adolescent boys and girls).

Answer 2

A type of interview in which a participant's response to each successive question (or problem) determines that the investigator will ask next. ➕ Useful for gathering large amounts of information in relatively brief periods Its flexibility makes it possible to obtain a rich understanding of the meaning of those answers ➖ Difficult to compare answers of participants due to different questions being asked Examiner's preexisting theoretical biases may affect that particular follow-up questions asked and the interpretations provided.

Answer 3

An investigator records the frequencies with which individuals display particular behaviours during the brief time intervals that each participant is observed.

Answer 4

The investigator gathers extensive information about the life of an individual and then tests developmental hypotheses by analysing the events of the person's life history. ⭐️The information can be gathered via all of the data collection methods. ➖ Lack generalisability- conclusions drawn from the experiences of a small number of individuals studied may simply not apply to most people. Therefore, any conclusions drawn from case studies should always be verified through the use of other research techniques.

Answer 5

Method in which the researcher seeks to understand the unique values, traditions, and social processes of a culture or subculture by living with its members and making extensive observations and notes. ➕ Data collected is extensive and consists largely of naturalistic observations Can lead to a richer understanding of a community's traditions and values than is possible through a small number of visits ➖ Highly subjective as the researcher's own cultural values and theoretical biases can cause them to misinterpret what they have experienced Ethnographic conclusions pertain only to the culture/subculture studied and thus cannot be generalised to other contexts or social groups

Answer 6

Methods that measure the relationships between physiological processes and aspects of children's physical, cognitive, social, or emotional behaviour and development. ⭐️Heart rate and measures of brain function are useful for assessing psychological state ➕ Useful for interpreting the mental and emotional experiences of infants and toddlers who are unable to report such events ➖ Far from perfect indicates of psychological states Often difficult to determine exactly which aspect of that stimulus has captured attention Changes in physiological responses are more likely to be valid indicators of psychological experience when participants are calm as changes in physiological responses may often reflect mood swings, hunger, etc.

Answer 7

Indicates the strength of associations among variables; though correlated variables are systematically related, these relationships are not causal. ⭐️Correlation coefficient (r): a numerical index ranging from -1.00 to +1.00, of the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. ➕ A versatile approach that can detect systematic relationships between any two or more variables that we might be interested in and are capable of measuring ➖ Cannot unambiguously indicate that one thing causes another

Answer 8

The investigator introduces some change in the participant's environment and then measures the effect of that change on the participant's behaviour. ➕ Permits a precise assessment of the cause-and-effect relationship that may exist between two variables ➖ The tightly controlled laboratory environment is often contrived and artificial and that children are likely to behave very differently in these surroundings than they would in a natural setting Conclusions drawn from the lab may thus not always apply in the real world

Answer 9

The investigator measures the impact of some naturally occurring event that is assumed to affect people's lives. The IV = the "event" that participants experience The DV = whatever outcome measure one chooses to study ➕ Tells us whether a natural event could have possible influenced those who experienced it ➖ Hard to determine precisely what factor is responsible for any group differences that are found as the IV is not controlled and participants are not randomly assigned.

Answer 10

Subjects from different age groups are studied repeatedly over a period of months or years. ⭐️Combines the best features of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies by selecting participants of different ages and following each of these cohorts over time ➕ Allows us to determine whether cohort effects are influencing results Allows us to make both longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons in the same study More efficient than standard longitudinal designs

Answer 11

Participants are studied intensively over a short period of time as developmental changes occur, attempts to specify how or why those changes occur. ⭐️Attempts to illuminate the processes that are thought to promote developmental changes ➕ Provides a unique opportunity to witness and record the actual process of developmental change as it occurs ➖ Difficult, time-consuming, and costly to track large numbers of children in such a detailed way The frequency of observations required may affect the development of children involved. In other words, the extensive experiences that children receive to stimulate development in this study may not reflect what they would normally encounter and/or may misrepresent the processes that underlie developments in the natural environment

Answer 12

A study that compares the behaviour and/or development of people from different cultural or subculture all backgrounds. ➕ Guards against the overgeneralisation of research findings and is the only way to determine whether there are truly "universals" in human development ⭐️Illustrates that human development is heavily influenced by the cultural context in which it occurs

Answer 13

Two or more persons who are operating at similar levels of behavioural complexity.

Answer 14

Infants (1st year of life) ⭐️Early forms of social interest and responsivity -2-4 mos. look/touch each other -Direct smiles/frown at interaction partners (peer smiles ~6 mos., adults 2 mos. or earlier) -Observe peers Toddler (2nd year of life) - Reciprocal imitation (1 year) - Action/reaction - Enabled by advances in: locomotion and language 3 yrs onward Complementary roles and pretence/pretend -Enabled by further advance in: language and knowledge about the world

Answer 15

1. Nonsocial activity: children watch others play or engage in their own solitary play and largely ignore what others are doing. -Most prevalent type (3-4 years), declines with age Functional play: immature, motor action, related to poor acceptance 2. Parallel play: children play side by side but interact very little and do not try to influence the behaviour of other players. Social Play: 3. Associative play: children now share toys and swap materials, but pursue their own agendas and do not cooperate to achieve shared goals 4. Cooperative play: children now act out make-believe themes, assume reciprocal roles, and collaborate to achieve shared goals ⭐️With age, solitary and parallel play occur less frequently whereas associative and cooperative play occur more frequently

Answer 16

A confederation of peers that interact regularly, define a sense of membership, and formulate norms that specify how members are supposed to look, think, and act. A structure or hierarchical organisation is also developed.

Answer 17

A small group of friends that interacts frequently.

Answer 18

A large, reputationally based peer group made up of individuals and cliques that share similar norms, interests, and values.

Answer 19

1. Initiation phase (early adolescence): Major focus is on the self- on coming to see oneself as someone who can relate in romantic ways to members of the other sex. 2. Status phase (mid-adolescence): Having a romantic friendship with the "right kind" of partner is important for status if it brings acceptance in the larger peer group. 3. Affection phase (late adolescence): One's focus is on the relationship itself rather than on the self or the peer status. Romantic relationships are now more personal and caring, and apart from the context of the larger crowd. 4. Bonding phase: (early adulthood): Emotional intimacies achieved in the affection phase are joined with longer-term commitments to create lasting bonds (true loving attachments)

Answer 20

A measure of a person's like ability (or dislikability) in the eyes of peers. ⭐️Those accepted posses the characteristics that are valued by their peer groups Categories of Peer Acceptance: 1. Popular children 2. Rejected children 3. Neglected children 4. Controversial children 5. Average children

Answer 21

1. Aggressive-rejected children: display high levels of hostility and aggression in their interactions with peers. Tend to be uncooperative and critical of peer group activities and to display very low levels of prosocial behaviour. Are at the greatest risk of retaining their rejectee status over time and becoming chronically hostile, and displaying externalising conduct disorders and even criminal acts of violence later in life. 2. Withdrawn-rejected children: are often passive, socially anxious, socially unskilled, and insensitive to peer-group expectations. Quick to anger in response to conflicts Feel especially lonely and are at risk of low self-esteem, depression, and other internalising disorders.

Answer 22

1. Psychcoanalytic Theory ⭐️Freud's Psychosexual Theory ⭐️Erikson's Psychosocial Theory 2. Behaviourism ⭐️Watson: Applied Classical Conditioning to Children ⭐️Skinner: Operant Conditioning 3. Social-Learning Theory ⭐️Bandura

Answer 23

Based on emotionally disturbed adult patients' childhood memories. ⭐️Essentially a restatement of Hobbes' doctrine of original sin. ⭐️Human beings are driven by powerful biological urges that must be satisfied. ⭐️Viewed the newborn as an inherently selfish creature driven by two kinds of instincts: Eros (respiration, hunger, and sex that help the individual and species to survive; aka the life instinct) and Thanatos (inborn, self-destructive instincts that were said to characterise all human beings expressed through behaviours such as arson, or murder; aka the death instinct)

Answer 24

⭐️Personality problems develop if parents allow too much or too little gratification of child's biological (sexual and aggressive) drives. ⭐️Unsuccessful resolution of conflict at specific stages of development correspond with certain personality problems ⭐️Freud believed that as the sex instinct matured, its focus would shift from one part of the body to another, and that each shift brought on a new stage of psychosexual development. Oral (0-1): dependent, manipulative Anal (1-3): obstinate, retentive, stingy Phallic (3-6): reckless, exhibitionist; Oedipus and Electra complex Latency (6-11): precious unresolved issues: rechanneled into such work, play Genital (12-): ideal is sexually mature adult; successful relationships ➕ Implications of early experience on later development Unconscious mind ``` ➖ Lack of child study Overemphasis on sex Relevant only to the Victorian era His methods were entirely retrospective in that they were based on adults' recollections of their childhood, particular those with problems and therefore may not be representative of normative development. ```

Answer 25

Expanded Freud's theory in 3 ways. 1. Emphasised interpersonal and cultural; and our rational, adaptive nature rather than sexual biases for each stage. 2. Child as active. a. Explores and adapts to environment b. Not passive result of biological urges and parent moulding 3. Proposed 8 psychosocial stages of development that extend over the entire lifespan. a. Progression through stages is achieved by resolving social "crises" b. All stages have consequences for child's identity development ➕ Extended developmental theory beyond adolescence to mid life and old age Stages are intuitively appealing, seem to capture many of life's central issues Themes he emphasised have been the focus of much subsequent work ➖ Vague about causes of development More descriptive than explanatory

Answer 26

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1): can I trust my caregivers to take care of me? 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3): can I make choices and do things myself? 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6): can I imagine/invent who I am? (Imaginary play) 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11): Cani learn at school and be accepted by peers? 5. Identity vs. Identity Diffusion (Adolescence): Can I define who I am in terms of adult roles? 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult): can I form close relationships? 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle adult): can I do meaningful work and contribute to next generation? 8. Integrity vs. Despair (Old age): is the life I have lived worthwhile?

Answer 27

⭐Development is continuous and framed by experience- the opposite of psychoanalytic theory as it doesn't focus on internal states ⭐️Watson: applied classical conditioning to children. The ultimate Nurture argument (child as passive) ⬅️ akin to Locke Little Albert associated furry rat with obnoxious noise. Development was continuous rather than stage-like. ⭐️Skinner: operant conditioning: child acts on world and world responds with: Positive reinforcement/reward: praise, affection, toy Negative reinforcement/punishment: withdrawal of affection, parental disapproval The habits we develop and the directions in which we develop depend on external stimuli (reinforcers and punishers) rather than on internal forces such as instincts, drives, or biological maturation.

Answer 28

⭐️More balanced perspective than behaviourism. Not all child behaviour is acquired through conditioning/reinforcement. Humans are cognitive beings who are likely to think about the relationship between behaviour and its consequences, and are often more affected by what they believe will happen than by the events they actually experience. Learning can occur through imitating models (observational learning). ⭐️Bobo doll experiment: cognitions mediate modelling ⭐️Child as active

Answer 29

Human development results from interaction between person - behaviour - environment. Child's behaviour changes the environment, which in turn, impacts the child. It's a two-way street/bidirectional. ⭐️Children are actively involved in shaping their environments which will in turn influence their growth and development. ➕ Produced many precise experiments Real-life applications: Behaviour modification: eliminate reinforces of undesirable behaviour, model desired behaviour. ➖ Individual differences likely result from more than differences in models available in the environment, biology also plays a role. Qualitative changes in cognition bit acknowledged.

Answer 30

1. Id (birth): sole function is to satisfy inborn biological instincts, and it will try to do so immediately. 2. Ego: conscious, rational component of the personality that reflect the child's emerging abilities to perceive, learn, remember, and reason. It functions to find the realistic means of gratifying the instincts. As their egos mature, children are better able to control their irrational ids and gratify their needs on their own. 3. Superego (between 3 and 6): the seat of conscience. Children internalise the moral values and standards of their parents. Once it emerges children do not need an adult to tell them they have been good or bad; they're aware of their transgressions and will feel guilty or ashamed of their unethical conduct. It insists that the ego find socially acceptable outlets for its undesirable impulses.

Answer 31

⭐️Evolutionary theories: emphasis on normative development ⭐Behavioural genetics: emphasis on individual differences ⭐️Ecology: emphasis on describing multiple layers of environment

Answer 32

The study of the bioevolutionary bases of behaviours and development and the contributions of such evolved responses to a species' survival and development. Assumptions: ⭐️Lorenz and Tinbergen: members of all animal species are born with a number of "biologically programmed" behaviours that are (1.) products of evolution and (2.) adaptive in that they contribute to survival. E.g. Imprinting in birds helps to protect the young from predators and to ensure they find food; crying in human infants ensures basis needs are met and that they have sufficient contact with other human beings to bond and form social and emotional attachments. ⭐️Focus on inborn/instinctual responses that (1.) members of a species share and (2.) seem to steer individuals along similar developmental paths. ⭐️Adaptive function of behaviour best understood in natural setting ➕ Emphasis on studying children in natural settings Comparison of humans to other species Humans not born empty or only with reflexes ➖ Hard to test/falsify Post-hoc (retrospective rather than predictive) Social learning may quickly overshadow innate behaviours

Answer 33

⭐️Emphasises early rather than later experiences Critical period: limited time span, child biologically equipped to acquire adaptive behaviour with environmental input. Sensitive period: optimal period for child to develop adaptive behaviours with stimulating environmental input; particularly sensitive to environmental influences that would foster these attributes. (e.g. More susceptible to forming close emotional ties during the first three years).

Answer 34

⭐️Views individuals as motivated to ensure the survival of their genes rather than their own personal survival. Mating preferences Men: younger, attractive females likely to result in reproductive success Females: one mate who has the tangible resources and psychological attributes that will aid her in protecting and nurturing her children. Long period of immaturity as adaptive: A lengthy period development accompanied by the protection provided by older individuals is adaptive in that it allows juveniles to acquire all the physical and cognitive competencies, knowledge, and social skills to occupy niches as productive members of their human culture. Parental altruism, kin selection

Answer 35

⭐️Claim that most behavioural attributes are the end product of a long and involved interplay between hereditary predispositions and environmental influences. What may seem to have a very strong hereditary component (e.g. Height) is often modified in important ways by environmental influences. ⭐️Focus heavily on the biological bases for VARIATION/individual differences among members of a species

Answer 36

⭐️Selective Breeding: only with animals! (e.g. Tyron's work with rats that showed that maze-learning ability in rats is influence by their genetic makeup. ⭐️Family Studies: Persons who live in the same household are compared to see how family they are on one or more attributes. Twin Study: identical (kinship = 1.00) vs. fraternal twins reared together; compared to determine the heritability of an attribute. Are pairs of identical twins reared together more similar to each other on various attributes than pairs of fraternal twins reared together? Adoption Study: identical twins reared together vs. apart; adoptees are compared with their biological and adoptive relatives to estimate the heritability of an attribute. Are adopted children similar to their biological parents, whose GENES they share,or are they similar to their adoptive parents, whose ENVIRONMENT they share? ➕ Help us to estimate the extent to which various abilities and behaviours are influenced by the environment

Answer 37

1. Heritability coefficient: H = (r identical twins - r fraternal twins) x 2 (i.e. Heritability of an attribute equals the correlation between identical twins minus the correlation between fraternal twins, all multiplied by a factor of 2. 2. Nonshared environmental influence: NSE = 1 - r(identical twins reared together) Used to estimate the influence of nonshared environmental influences. 3. Shared Environmental Influences: SE = 1 - (H + NSE) Shared environmental influences on a trait equal 1 minus the variation attributable to genes (H) and NSE influences. Experiences that individuals living on the same home environment share and that conspire to make them similar to each other. Correcting Misconceptions about Heritability Estimates: ⭐️Applicable to populations not individuals- heritability indicates degree of common variance among people (not in individuals) that is genetic ⭐️Varies across populations and environmental conditions ⭐️Heritable does not mean unchangeable- inappropriate as basis for arguing against interventions aimed at stimulating individual change

Answer 38

➕ Many attributes previously thought to be solely environmental are in part influenced by genes- we just acknowledge the role of both ➖ Descriptive rather than explanatory Development is not explained by merely postulating that unspecified environmental forces influenced in unknown ways by our genes somehow shape our behaviour

Answer 39

⭐️Provides the most detailed analyses of environmental influences that has appeared to date. ⭐️Assumes that natural environments are the major source of influence on developing persons ⭐️The developing person is said to be at the centre of and embedded in several environmental systems, ranging from immediate settings such as the family to more remote contexts such as the broader culture. Each of these systems is thought to interact with others and with the individual to influence development in important ways. 1. Microsystem: the immediate settings that the person encounters: families, day care, schools, neighbourhoods 2. Mesosystem: interconnections among an individual's immediate settings, or microsystems: parent-teacher relationship 3. Exosystem: systems that children and adolescents do not directly experience but may nonetheless indirectly influence their development: parents' networks or workplace, extended family, community services 4. Macrosystem: systems of the larger culture: media, politics, laws, social policy 5. Chronosystem: changes in the individual or the environment that occurs over time and influence the direction development takes.

Answer 40

➕ Emphasis on nurture, but nature included in recent versions of theory Provides a much richer description of environment than anything offered by learning theorists Suggested many ways in which the development of children might be optimised (e.g. At the level of the microsystem, may encourage the father to encourage the working mother to become more responsive and patient with their temperamentally difficult child. ➖ Still vague about processes/biological contributors within the child Complements other theories, but does not replace them

Answer 41

A motivational construct that is characterised by changes in affect (or feelings- e.g. positive/negative), physiological responses (heart rate-vagal tone, GSR, brain wave activity) cognitions, and overt behaviour/goals (approaching/avoiding stimuli, communicating needs, etc.)

Answer 42

⭐️Specific emotions are biologically programmed, accompanied by distinct sets of bodily and facial cues, and discriminate from early in life. This traces back to Darwin who proposed that the basic emotions humans display are products of our evolutionary history have some adaptive value. (e.g. Interest, fear, disgust, joy, sadness, anger) ⬅️ each are accompanied by a particular set of facial (and bodily) reactions and is apparent very EARLY IN LIFE.

Answer 43

⭐️Newborns express general positivity/negativity but NOT discrete emotions. Emotions are entities that emerge with age. ⭐️The basic purpose of emotions is to influence behaviour and promote some action toward achieving a goal ⭐️Emphasis of environmental influences on emotional development (e.g. A newborn whose arms are restrained is likely to become distressed by frustration/pain she experiences, yet it may take her 2-3 months of interacting with other people before she is able understand that someone is causing her distress. ⭐️Also emphasise that successful adaption to their environment often requires children to control their emotions rather than expressing them freely.

Answer 44

⭐️It's the use of others' emotional expressions to gain information or infer the meaning of otherwise ambiguous situations. Emerges between 7 and 10 mos. It influences infants' responses to uncertainty; wariness of strangers, play with an unfamiliar toy. Begins with parents, then others are used as well. Mechanism through which infants use caregivers as secure base for exploration. In 2nd year toddlers, they reference after making own judgement for confirmation.

Answer 45

⭐️The process of adjusting one's emotions to appropriate levels of intensity in order to accomplish one's goals. Involves managing multiple components of emotion: feelings, cognitions, physiological arousal, behaviour, including facial expressions Strategies available in middle childhood: - Attention shifting (distraction) - Thought and behaviour modification - Environment selection

Answer 46

Early-emerging biologically-based (stable) individual differences in quality and intensity of emotional reaction, activity level, attention, and emotional self-regulation. ⭐️Roots of adult personality

Answer 47

1. Fearful distress 2. Irritable distress/frustration-anger 3. Positive affect/sociability 4. Activity level 5. Attention span/persistence 6. Rhythmicity/soothability

Answer 48

A temperamental attribute reflecting the fearful distress children display and their tendency to withdraw from unfamiliar people and situations. ⭐️Moderately stable attribute ⭐️Characterised by low threshold for arousal Physiological correlates include elevated: heart rate, cortisol (stress hormone), pupil dilation, blood pressure, skin temperature, right frontal EEG asymmetry. Longitudinal Outcomes: ⭐️Later social behaviour of inhibited children depends on parenting: Warm, supportive parenting: ⬇️cortisol Overprotection: prevents exposure, inhibition persists Goodness-of-fit: temperament/parenting/culture 👎Extremely inhibited infants later show higher rates of shyness/social anxiety in childhood and adolescence

Answer 49

1. Easy child: regular routines, cheerful, adapts to novelty 2. Difficult child: irregular routines, slow to adapt to novelty, reacts negatively and intensely; risk for later anxious withdrawal and aggression 3. Slow-to-warm-up child: inactive, mild reactions, negative mood, slow to adapt to novelty

Answer 50

➖ Heritability of temperament is moderate at best, so both nature and nurture contribute Parents' pre-birth expectations predict temperament Parental reports of temperament correlated with parent characteristics (anxiety, depression) Temperament is an important construct, but child characteristics cannot be assumed to be a pure representation of their biology even at birth, never mind months later.

Answer 51

A close emotional relationship between two persons characterised by mutual affection (both child and caregiver are attached) and a desire to maintain proximity. Develops in second half of 1st year (7-9 mos.)

Answer 52

1. Asocial phase (0-6 weeks): positive response to social and non social stimuli. 2. Phase of indiscriminate attachments (6 weeks - 6/7 months): prefer social to nonsocial stimulation and are likely to protest whenever they're put down or left alone. 3. Specific attachment phase (7-9 mos.): attached to one close companion. 4. Phase of multiple attachments (several weeks later): form attachments to companions other than their primary attachment companion.

Answer 53

⭐Observational method consisting of a series of child-parent separations and reunions. The infant's response determines QUALITY of their attachments as: 1. Secure: comforted by parent's return; uses this person as a secure base from which to explore the environment 2. Avoidant: unresponsive to parent's return; little separation protest 3. Resistant: fail to explore, angry/not comforted at return; strong separation protest 4. Disorganised/disoriented: contradictory behaviour at return, most insecure; tendency to first seek and then abruptly avoid the caregiver

Answer 54

1. Secure: warm and responsive 2. Avoidant: unresponsive and rejecting, OR intrusive, overstimulating 3. Resistant: inconsistent, unresponsive/interfering 4. Disorganised/disoriented: abusive

Answer 55

Cognitive representations of self, others, and relationships that infants construct from their interactions with caregivers. Expectations about the availability of attachment figures and their likelihood of providing support during stress, guide for future close relationships. Model of Self and Others Evidence: ⭐️Secure children remember more positive information; insecure more negative Intergenerational transmission: mothers' pre-birth working models (attachment with own parents) predict security of child attachment about 75% of the time with an exact match in type 60-70% of the time. Mothers' attachment with own parent determined via Adult Attachment Interview.

Answer 56

⭐️Maternal deprivation hypothesis: the notion that socially deprived infants develop abnormally because they have failed to establish attachments to a primary caregiver. ⬆️Disproved because children with multiple responsive caregivers do well ⭐️Social stimulation hypothesis: the notion that socially deprived infants develop abnormally because they have had little contact with companions who respond contingently to their social overtures; no synchrony; learned helplessness

Answer 57

The understanding that people have mental states, such as desires, beloved, and intentions, that: - are not directly accessibly by others - guide their behaviour

Answer 58

``` ⭐️OVERALL SELF-WORTH ⭐️Scholastic competence ⭐️Social acceptance ⭐️Athletic competence ⭐️Physical appearance ⭐️Behavioural conduct ```

Answer 59

Feelings of self-worth within a particular relationship context; may differ across relationship context. ⬆️New dimensions contribute to overall self esteem: ⭐️Romantic appeal ⭐️Quality of close friendships

Answer 60

Identity formation: Can I identify who I am in terms of adult roles? Education/career, values, relationships "Identity crisis" Marcia's 4 Identity Statuses 1. Identity diffusion: not questioning who they are and have not yet committed themselves to an identity. 2. Foreclosure: prematurely committed themselves to occupations or ideologies without really thinking about these commitments. 3. Moratorium: currently experiment an identity crisis and are actively exploring occupational and ideological positions in which to invest themselves. 4. Identity achievement: have carefully considered identity issues and have made firm commitments to an occupation and ideologies.

Answer 61

1. Behavioural comparison phase (6-8 years): compare overt behaviours 2. Psychological constructs phase (9-10 years): base one's impressions of others on the stable traits these individuals are presumed to have 3. Psychological comparison phase (10 years +): compare and contrast individuals on abstract psychological dimensions

Answer 62

⭐️Role taking: the ability to assume another person's perspective. Studies the development of role-taking skills by asking children to comment on a number of interpersonal dilemmas. ⭐️Role Taking Test "How does Holly know how Shawn feels about the kitten?" "How will her father feel if she climbs the tree?" "What would you do?" ⬆️Responses are used to describe stages of role taking ⬆️Differs from ToM test as the ToM test works to understand/assess a child's ability to take on the perspectives of others in a fairly concrete manner; it's a more competent test looking at variations among older children. ⭐️Child's responses are coded and are used to evaluate their level of reasoning in terms of the degree to which they're taking on the father's perspective in particular.

Answer 63

0. Egocentric or undifferentiated perspective (3-6 years): Children unaware of any perspective other than their own. They assume that whatever they feel is right for Holly to do will be agreed with by others. 1. Social-informational role taking (6-8 years): Children now recognise that people can have perspectives that differ from their own but believe that this happens only because these individuals have received different information. 2. Self-reflective role taking (8-10 years): Children now know that their own and others' points of view may conflict even if they have received the same information. Can now recognise that the other person can put himself in their shoes, be they are unable to consider both his perspective and that of another simultaneously. 3. Mutual role taking (10-12 years): Child can now simultaneously consider own and other's perspective and that the other can do the same; can also assume the perspective of a disinterested third party. 4. Societal role taking (12-15 years +): Adolescent now attempts to understand another's perspective by comparing it with that of the social system in which they operate. Typically assume perspectives on events that most people in their social group would take.

Answer 64

⭐️People have a learned motive to compete and strive for success whenever one's behaviour can be evaluated against a standard of success. It is measured using Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Written response to ambiguous picture stimulus scored for achievement themes. Developed and sustained through REINFORCEMENT: Self-reinforcement: pride in achievements reinforced by satisfying internal need for competence.

Answer 65

⭐️Western, individualistic concepts of high achievement: accomplishing high standards vs. outperforming others Phase 1 (before 2 years)- Joy in mastery: pleased with own mastery of challenges Phase 2 (around 2 years)- Approval seeking: seeking recognition for mastery of challenges, expecting disapproval when not successful Phase 3 (around 3 years)- Use of standards: reacting independently to successes and failures- as if they have taken on standards for appraisal of own performance Competitive activities: Progression from: 1. Successful mastery; 2. To happier if finished first or winning competition; 3. To slowing down or stopping when someone else had finished or won. ⬆️ emphasis on social comparison

Answer 66

1. McClelland/Atkinson- Need Achievement theories 2. Weiner's Attribution Theory 3. Dweck's Learned Helplessness Theory 4. Recent developments in theories of achievement motivation: - Expectancy-value theory - Achievement goal orientation theory - Self determination theory

Answer 67

⭐️nAch is a learned motive and therefore individual differences in it relate to differences in quality of "achievement" training- therefore social context is critical. Equivocal findings across studies led to the theory's revision and the incorporation of "motive to avoid failure": reacting to failure experiences with shame and embarrassment. Two competing motives: motive to attain success vs. avoid failure ⬅️ constantly in conflict. The relative strength of these motives influence achievement behaviour. ⭐️Two additional "cognitive factors" impact achievement behaviour: 1. Value individual places on particular achievement (e.g. Individual differences in motivation to be successful in an introductory psych class based on its relevance to future career) 2. Expectations of success and failure

Answer 68

⭐️Achievement behaviour is influenced by causal attributions: beliefs about one's CONTROL over successes and failures. Attributions vary according to LOCUS OF CONTROL- beliefs concerning whether the causes of success and failure are internal or external. E.g. When you do well on a test at school it is more likely to be: because you studied for it OR because the test was especially easy. Second dimension: STABILITY of causes of success and failure. ``` ⭐️Combining the two dimensions (locus of control and stability of causes) generates a classification of the different attributions for achievement outcomes: >Ability >Effort >Task difficulty >Luck ```

Answer 69

⭐️Explored the character of attributions about the internal personal characteristic of ability Ability as a FIXED ENTITY: belief that one's ability is a highly stable trait, not influenced by effort and practice Ability as a MALLEABLE TRAIT: belief that one's ability can be improved through effort and practice ⭐️Across primary to secondary schooling there is evidence of a shift in children's concept of ability - stronger adherence to fixed entity view ⭐️Dweck emphasised that children's attributions for outcomes + view of ability (entity vs. incremental) + achievement expectancies (high vs. low) = achievement orientations Mastery Orientation: incremental view of ability- outcomes can be improved by effort or practice persistence

Answer 70

``` ⭐️Cultural and subcultural influences -Cultural background -SES -Peer group ⭐️Home and family influences ```

Answer 71

A behaviour, value, or notice that members of a society consider more typical of one sex than the other. ⭐️Men - instrumental Personality: competence, rationality, assertiveness Physical: tall, strong, sturdy Occupation: truck driver, doctor, insurance agent ⭐️Women - expressive Personality: warmth, caring sensitivity Physical: small, dainty, graceful Occupation: elementary school teacher, nurse, secretary Adults apply gender stereotypes more strongly to children than to adults.

Answer 72

The process by which children acquire not only a gender identity but also motives, values, and behaviours considered appropriate for members of their biological sex. 1. The development of gender identity: the knowledge that one's either a boy or a girl, and that gender is an unchanging attribute (gender constancy) 2. The development of gender role stereotypes: ideas about what makes and meals should be like 3. The development of gender typed patterns of behaviour: tendency to select same-sex play mates and same-sex activities over those normally associated with the other sex.

Answer 73

⭐️Biological influences ⭐️Interpersonal influences ⭐️Social-Cognitive Influences

Answer 74

⭐️ Major Themes: 1. Gender role development depends on cognitive development: - Children must acquire a certain level understanding of gender before they will be influenced by gender socialisation experiences - Only a basic gender identity (labelling) is necessary for children to acquire gender stereotypes and develop gender-typed toy and activity preferences 2. Children socialise themselves, actively seeking out information to learn how to act like a boy or girl when they have the basis of gender identify

Answer 75

⭐️Social, cognitive, and biological factors interactively contribute to sex-typing - Biological sex characteristics induce people to label a child as male and female, and to treat him/her accordingly - Biologically and socially influenced skills and interests shape activities/experience, which in turn influence brain development ⭐️Children are active self-socialisers who work very hard to learn and mimic behaviours and attributes that they are as consistent with their gender identify. What children learn through this self-socialisation process will depend on the 'gender curriculum' made available to them by society.

Answer 76

⭐️Biologically-oriented theories - Evolutionary theory - Money and Erhardt's Biosocial Theory ⭐️Socially-oriented theories - Freud - Social Learning Theory ⭐️Social cognitively-oriented theories - Kohlberg's Cognitive-Developmental Theory - Gender Schema Theory

Answer 77

⭐️Both men and women strive to ensure survival of their genes, but reproductive role differs: Men- instrumental traits: compete for mates, many mates, provide resources for family Women- expressive traits: nurture children, long investment in children, few mates ➖ Ignores socialisation, cultural and historical differences (changes in men and women's roles) Post hoc

Answer 78

⭐️Wished to look at how the biological and socialisation influences on gender development may work together ⭐️Gender identity results from both genes/hormones and socialisation Nature: Prenatal exposure to high male hormones on both CAH girls and normal girls related to instrumental traits. Nurture: involvement in spatial experiences and gender identity have strong influences on spatial ability. N X N: Behaviour genetics: genes contribute 50% male gender identity, 20% female gender identity Sensitive period (1.5-3 years): successful gender reassignment: cognitive development vs. risk of going against child's later adolescent preference N & N as inseparable: early experiences influenced by genes but experiences themselves lead to different brain growth.

Answer 79

Freud: ⭐️Emphasis on identification with same sex (i.e. Children look to learn from parents of the same sex as to how to act their gender) Social Roles Hypothesis ⭐️Psychological differences between the sexes and other gender role stereotypes arise from differences in: 1. The social roles that cultures assign to men 2. Agreed upon socialisation practices to promote particular traits in boys and girls (e.g. Parenting practices, ways of interactions with boys vs. girls, ideas from peers, etc.)

Answer 80

⭐️Direct tuition (differential reinforcement) Parents (esp. Fathers) encourage stereotypical preferences in the 2nd year before children clearly demonstrate differences and gender identity: reward for "appropriate" and punishment for "inappropriate" gender-typed behaviours. ⭐️Observational Learning: modelling and imitation of same-sex models such as parents, siblings, peers, TV characters, etc. Children hold less gender stereotypes when: -Parents have non-traditional roles -Have opposite sex siblings -Watch less TV

Answer 81

⭐️Consistency by 6 or 7 years 1. Gender labelling (basic gender identity; 2.5-3 yrs): can label own sex, but think it could change over time or if clothes/hair change. 2. Gender stability (5 or 6-7 yrs): sex always stays the same. Linked to cognitive development-conservation (Piaget). Children actively attend to information after consistency achieved. They will show more rapid development of gender-appropriate play preferences. ➖ Children show gendered behave before they achieve gender consistency.

Answer 82

Once children can label (or have basic gender identity) they construct gender schema which produces selective attention and memory, behavioural differences- they notice things in the environment about how they are to act in accordance with their gender ⭐️Consistent with theories that posit that basic gender identity comes even before gender consistency- they're already looking for and collecting information about their gender

Answer 83

⭐️A balance of desirable male and female traits. (E.g. You can be assertive, independent AND compassionate) Benefits: flexibility, higher self-esteem, perceived likability. ⭐️Benefits mostly due to male traits

Answer 84

⭐️Goal-driven behaviour Consequence: a response that delivers noxious stimuli to another organism. Intention: any form of behaviour that is designed to injure another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment. -Hostile (harm other); instrumental (self benefit) ⭐️Instinct Freud Lorenz ⭐️Learning (counterpoint) Dollard, Berkowitz Bandura Dodge ⭐️Social judgement Interpretation that may vary across people, situations, etc. Hostile aggression: actor's primary goal is to cause harm to or injure a victim. Instrumental aggression: harming another in order to achieve another end. ⬆️Can be difficult to distinguish without knowledge of intentions.

Answer 85

⭐️Proposed that humans are born with a death instinct (Thanatos) and that it must be discharged to prevent from building to dangerous levels. ➖ Doesn't emphasise what in the environment might need to be understood in order to understand aggressive behaviour. Instead he talked about this innate drive WITHIN humans which make us inherently aggressive.

Answer 86

⭐️Animals including humans have basis fighting instinct for members of the same species. ⭐️Aggressive energy builds until released by a releasing stimulus. ⬆️Serves evolutionary function in terms of territory, protection of kin, and sexual selection ⭐️Aggression is under the control of instinctual inhibitions. ⭐️According to Lorenz, the human aggressive instinct is poorly controlled because we lack the innate equipment to kill. When combined with modern weapons this creates the high level of human aggression in society. ➖ No neurophysiological evidence that the body accumulates aggressive energy Considerable evidence that humans DO have instinctual inhibitions for aggression: empathy and guilt which comes from the socialisation of children to deal with conflict in appropriate ways.

Answer 87

Frustration- thwarting of a goal- produces an aggressive response. ⭐️Aggression is caused by some form of aggression Berkowitz's Revision: ⭐️Frustration prompts anger, which is readiness for aggressive action, not aggression itself. Aggressive behaviour only results when there is also an "aggressive cue"/releasing stimulus (Lorenz) ⭐️Some individuals may have such strong existing aggressive habits that they behave aggressively without a strong aggressive cue

Answer 88

⭐️First model to stress cognitive influences Aggression acquired through: - Observational learning - Direct experience (reinforcement- positive and negative) ⭐️Aggressive behaviour is maintained if it is instrumental in gaining benefits for the aggressor: - Aggressive children have more positive expectations regarding the outcomes of aggression, both in terms of probability and value - Aggressive individuals tend to cluster into social groups where aggression is highly valued, and a source of personal pride ⭐️Aggression persists because it is: - Instrumental in obtaining goals - Used in terminating the noxious behaviour of others - Socially sanctioned by aggressive peers - Intrinsically rewarding for the aggressor ➖ May overstate the instrumental aspects of aggression: -Proactive aggression -Reactive aggression May need theory to explain both "rational" and "reactive" aggression

Answer 89

⭐️Attempts to explain how children come to favour aggressive or non aggressive solutions to social problems. He believes it depends on how child responds to an aggression-inducing situation regarding 6 cognitive steps: 1. Encode social cues 2. Interpret social cues 3. Formulate social goals 4. Generate problem-solving strategies 5. Evaluate the likely effectiveness of strategies and select a response 6. Enact a response- peer evaluation and response Reactive aggression: associated with hostile attributions- "others are trying to hurt me". Proactive aggression: associated with instrumental goals pursued through aggressive means.

Answer 90

⭐️Early Childhood Poor parental discipline and monitoring ⬇️ Child conduct problems ⭐️Middle Childhood ➡️Rejection by normal peers ➡️Academic failure ⭐️Late childhood and adolescence ➡️Commitment to deviant peer group ➡️DELINQUENCY

Answer 91

Prosocial behaviour: any act that benefits other people. Altruism: Motivational/intentional view: other's benefit is primary motive. Behavioural view: act that benefits others regardless of motive (prosocial behaviour) Analogous to hostile vs. instrumental aggression. ⬆️

Answer 92

1. Evolutionary view: Prosocial concern = inborn, promotes survival of species as cooperative living offers protection from predators and shared sustenance; EMPATHY: vicarious experience of others' emotions as inborn origin of prosocial behaviour. 2. Psychoanalytic view: children internalise societal values about prosocial behaviour via parents. 3. Social learning view: altruism may incur losses so why persist with punished behaviour? Rewards may come from: relief of empathic distress; praise leads prosocial to become self-reinforcing; modelling 4. Cognitive development view: cognitive development promotes prosocial behaviour. There is an emphasis on moral reasoning and shad contributes to what children think is right and wrong.

Answer 93

⭐️Perspective taking causes prosocial behaviour ⭐️More mature moral reasoning predicts prosocial behaviour Eisenberg's Levels of Prosocial Moral Reasoning: 1. Hedonistic (own needs) 2. Others' needs 3. Approval oriented, good vs. bad 4. Empathic 5. Internalised values ⭐️Empathy (affect) Socialised through: modelling and discipline emphasising other's affect; felt responsibility ⭐️Self-concept: viewing oneself as altruistic. Effects seen in older children (8 yrs) who see themselves in psychological terms.

Answer 94

A set or principles or ideals that help the individual to distinguish right from wrong, act on this distinction, and feel pride in virtuous conduct and guilt (or shame) for conduct that violates one's standards. ⭐️Cognitive, affective, and behavioural components

Answer 95

⭐️Emphasis on moral emotions and internalisation supported by research ➖ Harsh punishment/fear does not promote moral development Young girls demonstrate more (not less) advanced moral development- he focused on predominantly on boys No need for castration anxiety to develop superego Internalisation occurs earlier than Freud thought: -1-3 mos.: some rule compliance without authority present -2 yrs: emergence of guilt -3 yrs: pride & shame ⭐️The recent attachment perspective promotes committed (i.e. Adopt moral standard and behave appropriately due to believing and committing to these moral principles- demonstrated even when not in parents' presence) rather than situational compliance and internalisation in preschoolers

Answer 96

1. Premoral period (0-5 yrs): little rule awareness 2. The stage of Moral Realism/Heteronomous (5-10 yrs): view the rules of authority figures as sacred and black/white; acts judged by consequences vs. intent; immanent justice: wrong always punished. 3. The stage of Moral Relativism/Autonomous Morality (10/11 yrs): rules can be changed through consequences- not absolute; acts judged by intent rather than consequences; know from experience that transgressions may go unpunished; punishment should fit the crime. ⭐️Moral reasoning develops with cognitive development: role-taking skills; social experiences with equal status peers, authoritarian parents impede reasoning ➖ - Underestimated children's consideration of intention- it's considered even by preschoolers - Moral vs. social conventional rules (Turiel): distinction made as early as 2.5 yrs; conventions viewed as personal choice - Although authoritarian parenting does impede moral reasoning, many parents foster moral reasoning through discussion

Answer 97

⭐️Revision of Piaget's stages Method: Interviewer presents moral dilemma, asks what main actor should do and why. ⭐️Heinz dilemma: stealing vs. saving sick wife Level 1: Preconventional Morality (like Heteronomous) Stage 1: punishment and obedience (authority) Stage 2: instrumental purpose, thinking about the boarder implications of one's behaviours and actions (self-interest) Level 2: Conventional Morality: focus on maintaining social order. Stage 3: good boy/girl or cooperation, harmony in personal relationships ⬆️predominant across early adolescent years and continues to be salient even in peoples' 30s. Stage 4: social order maintaining; order in larger society Level 3: Postconventional (or principled) Morality: abstract principles apply to all situations/societies; question rules of own society Stage 5: social contract; follow established rules if for common good Stage 6: universal ethical principle; self-chosen universal ethics- ability to think of social norms and consider what the right principles would be behind what's right and wrong ⬆️Fairly uncommon for people to reach this level at all ➖ - Culturally biased towards individualism - More descriptive of adolescents than children

Answer 98

⭐️Two or more people, related by birth, marriage, adoption, or choice, who have emotional ties and responsibilities to each other. Contain complex networks of reciprocal relationships and influences.

Answer 99

⭐️Parenting styles defined by extent of: 1. Acceptance and responsiveness: The degree of responsiveness and affection directed towards a child; picking up on children's cues of distress. 👍Promotes emotional connection 2. Control (standards): degree to which parents place restrictions and demands on children's behaviour. 👍Promotes mature behaviour 👍Autonomy granting: encourages self-reliance (more should be granted as child develops) 1. Authoritative: warm & firm; maturity demands & autonomy adapted to readiness, reason with child. 2. Authoritarian: rejecting & coercive; little autonomy 3. Permissive: warm but lack of firmness & kindness; autonomy before ready 4. Uninvolved: emotionally detached, lack of firmness & guidance; indifferent to child's autonomy

Answer 100

Behavioural control: regulates child's conduct through firm discipline and monitoring of their conduct. "You have done a bad thing" 👍 Psychological control: regulates child's behaviour by withholding affection and/or inducing shame or guilt. "You are a bad person" 👎

Answer 101

``` ⭐️ECONOMIC STRESSORS: low family income; unstable employment; many debts; job loss ⬇️ Family economic distress ⬇️ Mother and father's depressed mood ⬇️ Marital conflict ⬇️ Child/adolescent emotional reactivity; nonnurturant/uninvolved parenting ⬇️ Emotional insecurity ⬇️ Antisocial conduct and adjustment problems ```

Answer 102

Any act or commission or omission by a parent or other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child. Harm does not need to be intended. Types of abuse: ⭐️Physical abuse: intentional use of physical force/implements against a child that results in, or has the potential to result in, physical injury. ⭐️Sexual abuse: any completed or attempted sexual act, sexual contact, or non-contact sexual interaction with a child. ⭐️Psychological or emotional abuse: intentional behaviour that conveys to a child that he/she is worthless, flawed, unloved, unwanted, endangered, or valued only in meeting another's needs. Can also include harmful parent-child interactions which are unintentional: "the persistent emotional ill-treatment of a child such as to cause severe and persistent adverse effects on the child's emotional development.

Answer 103

Failure to meet a child's basic physical, emotional, medical/dental, or educational needs; failure to provide adequate nutrition, hygiene, or shelter; or failure to ensure a child's safety. Includes failure to provide adequate food, clothing, or accomodation; not seeking medical attention when needed; allowing a child to miss large amounts of school; and failure to protect a child from violence in the home or neighbourhood or from avoidable hazards.

Answer 104

⭐️Emotional Climate: affective tone (both positive and negative), teacher sensitivity to student needs, teacher regard for student perspectives. ⭐️Instructional Climate: concept development, quality of feedback, language modelling. ⭐️Organisation: Teacher management of time and resources (productivity), and student behaviour (behaviour management), instructional learning formats.

Answer 105

⭐️Close reciprocal relationship involving companionship. 1-2 yrs: play more positive, affectionate, complex with preferred peers Handy playmate (4-7 years): liking, shared activity and toys, quickly formed and not enduring Mutual trust and assistance (8-10 years): psychological similarity, formed more slowly, enduring, apologies needed to make-up Intimacy and loyalty (11-15 years): reciprocal emotional commitment, forgiveness, endures unless serious disagreement ⭐️⬇️ in number and ⬆️ in stability over time with age ⭐️Friendships are formed when common-ground activity is formed, conflicts are resolved, communicate clearly, and there is exchange of information (esp. self-disclosure)

Answer 106

1. Companionship & Recreation 2. Validation & Caring 3. Intimate disclosure 4. Conflict resolution 5. Conflict and betrayal

Answer 107

Rumination: thinking about one's own problem over and over; linked with depression Co-rumination: a friendship dyad rehashes one of the pair's problems over and over; predicts negative adjustment.

Answer 108

Group of individuals whom: - Interact together - Provide sense of belonging - Create norms - Hierarchical structure Cliques (early adolescence): group of friends who interact with each other; shift from same-sex to co-ed; facilitates cross-sex relations. Crowds (mid-adolescence): collection of cliques who share salient characteristics; defined by reputation than interaction

Exam Revision Flashcards

(132 cards)