Exam2 Flashcards
(179 cards)
1
Q
The totality of an organism’s chemical reactions
A
Metabolism
2
Q
Pathways that release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds
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Catabolic pathways
3
Q
Pathways that consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones
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Anabolic pathways
4
Q
Energy that matter possess because of is location or structure
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Potential energy
5
Q
Potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction
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Chemical energy
6
Q
Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed
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1st law of thermodynamics
7
Q
Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe
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2nd law of thermodynamics
8
Q
the energy associated with the relative motion of objects. Moving matter can perform work by imparting motion to other mater
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Kinetic energy
9
Q
Energy that can do work when temp and pressure are uniform, as in a living cell
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Free energy
10
Q
the type of reaction that proceeds with a net release of free energy and is spontaneous
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exergonic reaction
11
Q
type of reaction that absorbs free energy from its surroundings and is nonspontaneous
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endergonic reaction
12
Q
the type of reaction that cells use to manage energy recourses by using exergonic ractions to drive and endergonic reactions
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Energy coupling
13
Q
The cells energy shuttle that cats as a coenzyeme and is a nucleoside triphosphate
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ATP
14
Q
what a recipient molecule is called when it is energized by a phosphate from ATP
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Phosphorylated
15
Q
A chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction
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Catalyst
16
Q
Catalytic proteins in cells that speed up chemical reactions required for cellular metabolism
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Enzyme
17
Q
The reactant that an enzyme acts on
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Substrate
18
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chance in enzyme shape that brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the reaction
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Induced Fit
19
Q
The initial energy needed to start a chemical reaction
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Activation energy
20
Q
molecules that bind to the active site of an enzyme, competing with the substrate and slowing the reaction
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Competitive inhibitors
21
Q
molecules that bind to another part of an enzyme, causing the enzyme to change shape and making the active site less effective
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Noncompetitive inhibitor
22
Q
Non protein enzyme helpers that may be inorganic or organic
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Cofactors
23
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small organic enzyme cofactors that include vitamins and ATP
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coenzyme
24
Q
Energy is required to sustain life. Of the statements below, which one correctly describes energy?
A
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
25
The second law of thermodynamics states that every energy transformation increases entropy. Which of these options is an example of entropy?
The aerobic respiration of glucose generates heat.
26
ATP hydrolysis facilitates cellular work by
releasing free energy that can be coupled to other reactions
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ATP can provide energy to a chemical reaction by adding which of these to a substrate inside a cell?
Phosphate group
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Some reactions in cells proceed spontaneously. These exergonic reactions
releases energy when proceeding in the forward direction
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Enzymes have several properties. One important property of enzymes is that they act as catalysts which means that enzymes
change the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction
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Enzymes can speed up chemical reactions by
lowering the energy of activation of a reaction
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Acetylcholine is a small organic molecule released from your neurons that causes your muscles to contract. An enzyme breaks down acetylcholine after it is released so that your muscles stop contracting. A molecule that is very similar to acetylcholine called succinylcholine prevents the enzyme from breaking down acetylcholine when it is present. This suggests that
succinylcholine must be a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine
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The enzyme polyphenol oxidase requires copper in its active site to catalyze a reaction. Copper in polyphenol oxidase is
a cofactor necessary for enzyme activity
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Metabolic pathways are important series of chemical reactions in our cells that must be regulated. To control a metabolic pathway, the product often inhibits an early step in the pathway. This type of regulation is called
feedback inhibition
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Partial degradation of sugars that occurs without O2
Fermentation
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consumes organic molecules and O2 and yields ATP
Aerobic respiration
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Chemical reactions that transfer electrons between reactants
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (Redox reactions)
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in a redox reaction the substance that loses elections is
Oxidized
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In a redox reaction the substance that gains electrons is
Reduced
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the electron doner in a redox reaction
Reducing agent
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the electron acceptor in a redox reaction
Oxidizing agent
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A coenzyme involved in redox reactions that represents stored energy that is tapped to synthesize ATP
NADH
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The first stage of cellular respiration that breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate
Glycolysis
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The second stage of cellular respiration that completes the breakdown of glucose
The citric acid cycle
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The third stage of cellular respiration that generates most of the ATP in cellular respiration through redox reactions and the use of an electron transport chain and chemiosmosis
oxidative phosphorylation
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The process that produces a smaller amount of ATP during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle by the transfer of phosphate groups during enzyme reactions
Substrate-level Phosphorylation
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The product of glycolysis that enters the mitochondria
Pyruvate
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The starting molecule for the citric acid cycle
Acetyl-CoA
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Electron carrier molecules that are the starting molecules for the electron transport chain
NADH and FADH2
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A series of protein complexes in the inner membrane (cristae) of the mitochondrion that reduce the free energy of electrons and finally pass electrons to O2, forming H2O
Electron transport chain
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Proteins in the electron transport chain that contain iron atoms allowing them to shuttle electrons through the chain
Cytochromes
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The use of energy in a H+ gradient to drive cellular work like the oxidative phosphorylation of ATP
Chemiosmosis
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A channel protein in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion that can couple the energy in the proton motive force to the phosphorylation of ATP
ATP synthase
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Another name for the H+ gradient created by the electron transport chain that has significant potential energy
Proton motive force
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The overall chemical reaction for cellular respiration is which of these?
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
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Substrate-level phosphorylation is
the process that produces ATP by transferring phosphate groups from substrates.
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Which of the following best describes oxidation reduction (redox) reactions?
electrons are lost from one substance and added to another substance
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The reaction for cellular respiration is C6H12O6 + 6 O2→ 6 CO2 + 6 H2O. During this reaction
oxygen becomes reduced
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Each stage of cellular respiration occurs in a specific part of the cell. Glycolysis occurs in the
cytosol
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Glycolysis is an important part of cellular respiration. Which of the following describes glycolysis the best?
```
ALL
generates NADH
splits glucose to form two molecules of pyruvic acid
it begins the breakdown of glucose
it produces a small amount of ATP
```
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Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle completely break down glucose but only produce a few ATP molecules. The remaining energy from glucose is
in NADH and FADH2
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Oxygen (O2) is required for which stage of cellular respiration?
the electron transport chain
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While pyruvate oxidation produces acetyl CoA,
CO2 and NADH are formed
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The electron transport chain is found in
the inner membrane of the mitochondria
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The electron transport chain is best described by which option below?
Electrons pass from one carrier to another, releasing a little energy at each step.
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During the electron transport chain, the energy from electrons is used to
pump H+ thru a membrane
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Fermentation maintains production of ATP at low levels. Fermentation does this by
enabling the cell to recycle NAD+
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During fermentation how many ATP are produced for each molecule of glucose?
2 ATP
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The most ancient metabolic pathway for generating small amounts of ATP is most likely
glycolysis
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The process that converts solar energy into chemical energy in the chloroplast
Photosynthesis
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Organisms that sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other organisms
Autotrophs
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Organisms that obtain their organic material from other organisms
Heterotrophs
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Microscopic pores for gas exchange in the leave that CO2 enters and O2 exits
Stomata
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The dense fluid inside the chloroplast
Stroma
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Connected sacs in the chloroplast which compose a third membrane system
Thylakoids
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Reactions of photosynthesis in the thylakoids that split H2O, Release O2, Reduce the electron acceptor NADP+ to NADPH and Generate ATP from ADP
The light reactions
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Reactions of photosynthesis in the stroma that form sugar from CO2, using ATP and NADPH
The calvin cycle
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The pigment which gives leaves their green color that resides in the thylakoid membranes
Chlorophyll
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Instrument that measures a pigment’s ability to absorb various wavelengths
Spectrophotometer
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Property of light that determines the type of electromagnetic energy (and color for visible light)
Wavelength
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The sites of light energy harvesting in thylakoids that consists of a reaction-center complex surrounded by light-harvesting complexes
Photosystem
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A type of protein complex where a primary electron acceptor accepts excited electrons and is reduced
Reaction-center complex
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Pigment molecules and proteins in the thylakoids that transfer the energy of photons to the reaction center
Light-harvesting complex
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The process of making ATP using a proton-motive force generated across the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts
Photophosphorylation
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The 3 carbon sugar produced by the Calvin cycle and an intermediate sugar in glycolysis
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
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The enzyme that normally catalyzes the addition of CO2 to RuBP as the first step of the Calvin cycle
Rubisco
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A lion eating a gazelle is an example of
a consumer eating a heterotroph
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Photosynthesis requires stomata for
gas exchange
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Plants appear green to us because we see
The wavelengths that are reflected or transmitted by a pigment object
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The reason pigments like chlorophyll are so important for photosynthesis is that when a pigment absorbs light, one of its electrons is raised to the ______ state.
excited
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In photosynthesis, the light reactions transform ______ energy to ______ energy.
solar... chemical
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Linear electron flow during the light reactions produces
ATP and NADPH
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Both photosynthesis and cellular respiration use oxidative phosphorylation to make ATP. A difference is that the H+ ion gradient forms across the ______ in photosynthesis.
Thylakoid membrane
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The part of photosynthesis called the Calvin cycle performs which of these functions?
making sugar
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Variations of photosynthesis have evolved for plants to survive in more extreme habitats. For instance, the C4 type of photosynthesis is seen in desert plants because
they can incorporate low level of CO2 into organic acids during the day and transport the carbon to the Calvin cycle in high amounts.
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Photosynthesis is critical for our survival because the ultimate source of the energy in our food is ______.
sunlight
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The cell cycle phase before cell division when DNA is replicated and the chromosomes condense
Interphase
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The cell cycle phase when the genetic material in the nucleus is divided equally and the cytoplasm is divided into two cells
Miotic Phase
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Joined copies of the original chromosome found in each duplicated chromosome that are attached along their lengths by cohesins
Sister chromatids
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The narrow “waist” of the duplicated chromosome, where the two chromatids are most closely attached
Centromere
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The life of a cell from formation to its own division
Cell cycle
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A structure of DNA and protein present in non-dividing cells that condenses during cell division
Chromatin
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Highly condensed packages of DNA molecules wrapped around proteins that can be moved easily when the cell is dividing
Chromosomes
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Interphase stage when growth and duplication of chromosomes and centrosomes occurs
S
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Interphase stages when only growth occurs
G1/G2
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Mitotic stage when the nuclear membrane breaks down, the centrosomes organize the production of microtubules that form the spindle fibers, and the chromosomes condense into compact structures
Prophase
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Mitotic stage when some spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of chromosomes and begin to move the chromosomes
Prometaphase
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Mitotic stage when the chromosomes align themselves along the center of the cell between the spindle poles
Metaphase
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Mitotic stage when the centromeres divide, and the sister chromatids of each chromosome are pulled apart and move to the opposite ends of the cell, pulled by spindle fibers attached to the kinetochore regions
Anaphase
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Stage of mitosis when the nuclear membrane reforms around the chromosomes grouped at either pole of the cell, the chromosomes uncoil and become diffuse, and the spindle fibers disappear
Telophase
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The system like a clock that guides the sequential events of the cell cycle
Cell cycle control
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Places where the cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is received
Checkpoints
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A cell cycle regulatory protein that phosphorylates target proteins when activated by cyclin
Cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk)
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A cell cycle regulatory protein that changes in concentration during the cell cycle
Cyclin
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Tumors created by abnormal cells that only remain at the original site
Benign tumor
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Tumors that invade surrounding tissues and cause disease symptoms
Malignant tumor
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The export of cancer cells to other parts of the body
Metastasis
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The fertilized egg that has one set of chromosomes from each parent
Zygote
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The two chromosomes in each pair of chromosomes (23 pairs in humans) found in somatic cells
Homologous chromosomes
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The chromosomes that determine the sex of the individual, called X and Y
Sex chromosomes
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All of the chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes
autosomes
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A cell has two sets of chromosomes (2n)
Diploid cell
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A cell has one set of chromosomes (n)
Haploid cell
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The type of cell division that produces sex cells (gametes)
Meiosis
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The reductional division in meiosis when homologs pair up and separate, resulting in two haploid daughter cells with replicated chromosomes
Meiosis I
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The equational division in meiosis when sister chromatids separate
Meiosis II
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A group of four chromatids formed by a pair of chromosomes in Prophase I
Tetrad
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When homologous chromosomes loosely pair up, aligned gene by gene, in Prophase I
Synapsis
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The process of nonsister chromatids exchanging DNA segments
Crossing over
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X-shaped regions where crossing over occurred
Chiasmata
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Changes in an organism’s DNA that are the original source of genetic diversity
Mutations
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Different versions of genes created by mutations
Alleles
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A source of genetic variation that happens when each pair of chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal homologs into daughter cells independently of the other pairs
Independent assortment
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A source of genetic variation that happens when crossing over combines DNA inherited from each parent
Recombiant chromosomes
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A source of genetic variation that happens when any sperm can fuse with any ovum (unfertilized egg)
Random fertilization
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In what way are sexual and asexual reproduction alike?
They can both occur in multicellular organisms
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Of the following, which incorrectly describes genes?
Genes are transmitted during sexual reproduction, but not during asexual reproduction.
137
For meiosis, which option below is not one of the functions of this type of cell division?
multiplication of body cells
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A normal human has 46 total chromosomes. Of these chromosomes, how many are autosomes?
44
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Which of the following is the best description of a karyotype?
photograph of persons chromosomes
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A normal female would have which of the sex chromosome combinations?
XX
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You are studying a new type of insect. You discover that this insect has a haploid chromosome number of n=4. During meiosis for this insect, how many tetrads will form?
4
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Which of the options below best explains the difference between Prophase I and Prophase II?
During prophase I there is one diploid cell; during prophase II there are two haploid cells.
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When comparing Meiosis I with Meiosis II, which of the following is a difference?
crossing over occurs in meiosis I, but not in meiosis II
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There is/are ____ cell(s) at the end of Telophase I and Cytokinesis.
2 haploid
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Which of these structures are seen at the sites of crossing over in the chromosomes?
Chiasmata
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When do homologous chromosomes pair during meiosis?
Prophase I
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Comparing mitosis and meiosis, you will see _____ at the end of mitotic cell division and _____ at the end of meiotic cell division.
two diploid cells ... four haploid cells
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During Metaphase I, homologous chromosomes can align in alternative arrangements that produce genetic variation. What is this specific mechanism of genetic variation called?
independent assortment
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Meiosis creates genetic variation in several different ways. Of the following, which one is not a way that genetic variation is created?
the events of anaphase II
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Inside the nucleus, chromatin is made up of
DNA and protein
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After S phase each chromosome consists of two
sister chromatids
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During prophase, a human cell will contain 46 chromosomes. How many sister chromatids make up the 46 chromosomes?
92
153
Cell division involving mitosis performs all of the following functions for eukaryotes except
production of gametes
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During the interphase portion of the cell cycle, which of the following happens?
DNA is synthesized
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Which of the following is the correct order of stages during the mitosis portion of the cell cycle?
Prophase, Metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
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During mitotic cell division the daughter cells that are produced
are genetically identical to the parent cell (assuming no mutation has occurred)
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Anaphase includes which of the following events?
centromeres divide
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Of the following, which is the best description of telophase?
the events of prophase are reversed
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During the cell cycle microtubules play an important role in moving around chromosomes. When do the centrosomes that produce microtubules separate and move to opposite sides of the cell?
Prophase
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What is the stage of mitosis when duplicated chromosomes are aligned in preparation to separate into individual chromatids and move to opposite poles?
metaphase
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An obvious way to tell that a dividing cell is a plant cell instead of an animal cell is the
formation of cell plate
162
Cancer progresses from benign tumors to malignant tumors. Which of these statements correctly explain the different between benign and malignant tumors?
benign tumors do not metastasize; malignant tumors do
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Enzymes that add a phosphate group to other proteins to control their activity are very important during the cell cycle. What are these type of enzymes called?
kinases
164
During cell division specific cyclin and cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) pairs control different checkpoints. The cyclin E and Cdk 2 pair are important for the G1 checkpoint that determines whether the cell will enter S phase. Given this information, which statement below is correct for cyclin E and Cdk 2?
The amount of cyclin E is highest during G1.
165
The cell cycle phase before cell division when DNA is replicated and the chromosomes condense.
interphase
166
The type of cell division in which the genetic material in the nucleus is divided equally and the cytoplasm is divided into two cells.
mitosis
167
The type of cell division that produces sex cells (gametes)
meiosis
168
A structure of DNA and protein present in non-dividing cells that condenses during cell division
chromosome
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Joined copies of the original chromosome found in each duplicated chromosome that are attached along their lengths by cohesins
sister chromatids
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The narrow “waist” of the duplicated chromosome, where the two chromatids are most closely attached
centromere
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A localized region at a growing tip of a plant body where one or more cells divide repeatedly.
meristem
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A hollow ball of cells that marks the end of the cleavage stage during early embryonic development in animals.
blastula
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A cell has one set of chromosomes (n)
haploid
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A cell has two sets of chromosomes (2n)
diploid
175
An offspring that results when crossing over does not happen.
non-recombinant
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An offspring created when crossing over recombines DNA from two parents.
recombinant
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The process of nonsister chromatids exchanging DNA segments
crossing over
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The continuous and prolific production of mature sperm in the testis.
spermatogenesis
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If a cell of an organism has 46 chromosomes before meiosis, how many chromosomes will exist in each nucleus after meiosis?
23
