Exotics and wild life Flashcards

Question

Describe the unique features of avian blood ?

Answer 1

Unique Avian Haematology (similar haematology to mammals) Unique features Heterophils - neutrophils which do not contain lysozymes, and this accounts for why birds do not have liquid pus - Lymphocytes - Eosinophils, highly granular - Monocytes - Basophils, dark coloured Eryhthrocytes are nucleated - polychromasia (variation in cell colour) is common - shorter cell life so always turning over making polychromasia a regenerative feature common - anaemia < 40% PCV Thrombocytes - not platelets

Answer 2

Nucleated red blood cells which means 100% of avian cells will be automatically counted as white blood cells.

Answer 3

Avian clotting Birds have thrombocytes and undergo the extrinsic clotting pathway involving the release of thromboplastin - this means clotting is induced by tissue damage in avian species, as opposed to mammals where clotting is induced by cutting of vascular channels. This is important for surgery in avian species - clotting may be induced by crushing prior to cutting

Answer 4

Identify cell types Blue = heterophil red = lymphocyte green = monocyte

Answer 5

Identify the avian cell types nucleated cells = eryhthrocytes blue = thrombocyte green = basophil red = heterophil

Answer 6

Avian cell type identification Dark green = heterophil Yellow = reactive heterophil Dark green = basophil Blue = lymphocyte Note basophils and eosinophils are commonly not present in a healthy avian blood sample. - there presence almost always means pathology - basophils, tissue damage, inflammation or immediate hypersensitivity - eosinophils = tissue damage usually in avian patients not parasites.

Answer 7

Avian hepatic disease : Biochemistry Hepatic enzymes; **AST (Aspartate aminotransferase)** - avian specific - rapidly incraeses with hepatic necrosis (3-5x impress), but will also elevate with muscle damage - when combined with elevation with CK more likely to indicate muscle injury **GLDH** - found in hepatocyte mitochondria, provides evidence of hepatic death Products of the avian liver -** Bile acids**, made in the liver and then recycled through hepatic circulation (high levels indicate they have not been removed from circulation) -** Cholersterol;** made in the liver from fats, carbs

Answer 8

Avian renal disease This is indicated through uric acid elevation - made in the liver from protein waste - sent to the kidneys for processing and excretion via the ureters - water is reabsorbed at the cloaca and then excretion occurs as urates Urea levels are insignificant in the bird

Answer 9

Avian reproduction Calcium - breeding females mobilise calcium from bones for egg shell development Cholesterol and triglycerides - elevate transiently when the egg yolk is being produced Total protein - will elevate during egg production due to transportation of egg components (albumin)

Answer 10

Avian biochemistry GIT disease - typically observe changes in Na, CL and K - amylase may become elevated with pancreatic disease Glucose - low levels starvation, spesis or an artefact from blood storage - increased levels should be ignored unless extreme >33 consistently for the diagnoses of diabetes.

Answer 11

Avian serology vrs PCR PCR (DNA testing of pathogen) - highly specific and sensitive - for many purposes it is too sensitive, with false results occuring due to contamination, medication - eg doxycycline inhibits chlamydia result 24hrs despite the bird having clinical signs Serology (Immune system proteins, antibodies) - levels influenced by host immune system eg immunosuppression - antibodies are easier to detect - good for flock screening - low sample requirements, small volume of blood - lower cost compared to PCR Ideal is to combine PCR and serology

Answer 12

Avian radiographs (Quick GA is best technique) Two standard views and one specialty - VD - Lateral - H view VD - is best to assess bone Lateral is best to assess organ and spinal assessment, wings dorsal and cranial H view - best to view coracoid

Answer 13

H view radiagraph H view - caudoventral-craniodorsal oblique - basically a VD taken at a 45 degree angle - allows seperation and highlighting of clavicle, coracoids and scapulas - removes overlap for best exposure - extremely important in performanace birds such as raptors.

Answer 14

SBL - Sick bird look There are limited ways in which a bird can express illness. - masking avoid predation - by the time they look sick thay are extremely sick - owners often present bird to the vat late in disease due to masking, cost and hope it will get better. Presentation - sunken eyes - mucoid saliva - decreased capillary refill - wrinkling, scaling or tenting of the skin - decreased urinary out - put

Answer 15

SBL - Sick bird look Aim for a tentative diagnosis in a live patient (better then a confirmed diagnosis in a dead patient) Interim supportive care can make the difference between the two outcomes. What causes SBL * dehydration * hypothermia * catabolism * pain * blood loss

Answer 16

Avian dehydration correction **1. Subcutaneous fluids** - often a first step in stabilisation as they can be given quickly to an unconscious bird - inguinal region or over hips (juveniles) - can save the veins - note neonates do not tolerate well being flipped upside down - NEVER GIVE IN THE CASE OF EMPHYSEMA **Crop lavage / oral fluids** - unsafe higher risk of aspiration for recumbant or seizuring patients - often a good option for recovering birds / birds which have turned the corner - utilse the largest tube available as it reduces the risk of placement in the trachea / won't fit - dosen't require GA **IV fluids** - typical rate 100ml/kg/day - limited veins available, all veins are fragile, haematomas occur easily, do everything slowly - right jugular (larger in most species) - medial metartarsal - cutaneous ulnar veins Interosseus fluids - distal ulnar - usually only useful for 3-4 days as the site becomes painful

Answer 17

Correcting avian dehydration (Crystalloids 2.5% glucose, 4.5% saline) Assume all sick birds are atleast 5% dehydrated - aim for 10% of body weight daily for three days - follow by a reduction in fluid therapy to 5-7% daily - consider higher dose in cases of ongoing loss such as diarrhea, polyuria - it is reccomended to divide the daily amount into 2-3 doses.

Answer 18

Interosseus fluids Common site distal and proximal ulna

Answer 19

Birds hypothermia This often kills birds long before the disease will - act fast - feathers fluffed to trap body heat - birds run hot 40-41 - lethargic and sleeping to conserve energy - too weak to perch, often on the floor of cage Treatment Heat cages to 30-32 degress - brooding enclosures - vetarios - hospital cage - continually monitor for heat stress or further dehydration

Answer 20

Going light = catabolism SBL burning energy to maintain 'healthy' appearance + fight disease - reduced faeces - poor body condition - small urates - monitor weight Treatment - ensue water and food is easily accessable - offer high calorie faveroite foods - crop lavage / Emeriads or hand rearing mix - feeding tube / oesophagostomy tube Oesophagostomy tube is easily placed but may require a cone to prevent avian interference.

Answer 21

Avian respiratory compromise (Not typically part of SBL) Clinical signs - open mouth breathing - increased respiratory effort - audible respiration - cyanosis - tail bobbing collapse Treatment - supplementary oxygen - many modern brooders - simple bubble system - in emergencys with tracheal obstructions, can use a small ET tube placed into caudal air sacs to by pass the obstruction

Answer 22

Pain in birds (sources of pain - acute = flight/fight, where as chronic pain more likly to display a withdrawal response). Treatment 1. Remove the source of pain eg splint fractures, treat infections 2. NSAIDS Meloxicam 1.5mg/kg BID injectable or oral. 3. Opiods Tramadol, noting many opiods have a very short half life in birds.

Answer 23

Avian haemorrhage Birds are more tolerant of blood loss than mammals - more efficient respiratory system - increased capillary bed with skeletal muscle (rapid extravascular fluid resorption to maintain vascular volume) - ability to mobilise large numbers of immature erythrocytes - no autonomic response to haemorrhage, so haemorrhagic shock is less likely Treatment - in most cases / mild - moderate fluid therapy - warmth In severe cases blood transfusion, use the most homologous sample available eg galah to galah > cockatoo to galah > other parrot to galah - transfusion reactions can occur with repeat infusions.

Answer 24

Differentials for bilaterally symetrical feather loss in birds - moulting - stuck in moult - hormonal, hyperestrogenism

Answer 25

Moulting Feather loss is a normal part of moulting - usually present bilaterally symetrical - controlled by the thyroid gland and modulated by diurnal cycles and photoperiod - occurs in health - usually occur twice a year; spring pre-nuptial and autumn post nuptial - while some species have no change in appearance in others dramatic plumage change (exception some water fowl)

Answer 26

Suspected broken feather quill (Physically inspect bird its not always a broken bone or tissue trauma). When a new feather forms in a follicle, the live tissue has a central artery and vein in order to supply nutrients to the growing feather. - once the feather is fully developed, the blood vessels shrink hypertrophy, and dry up - damage to the developing blood quill will cause copious bleeding as you have essentially severed an artery. Treatment - the best treatment is to pull out at the base, disrupting the blood supply.

Answer 27

Stuck in moult This common in canaries but may occur in other species - typically indoor housed birds exposed to constant and excessive photoperiod and protein deficient diet - birds continually look untidy, always loosing feathers as the moult process has no start or stop Treatment - Institute a distinct diurnal cycle and correct protein deficiency - Dark room 8-12hrs a day - treatment may intially trigger a profound moult warn owners.

Answer 28

Feather loss in birds - behavioural - predator avoidance, escape mechanism particularly in pigeons - social, often seen at breeding time (forced to nest by mate - stressed pet shop birds - feather picked chicks as they are pushed by parents to leave the nest - hormonal (hyperoestrogenism) - self inflicted - parasites (mites) - circovirus

Answer 29

Feather cyst This is basically an ingrown feather - often occurs due to surface trauma and may be genetic (canaries) Treatment - excise the cyst, but they will commonly recur.

Answer 30

Infectious causes (often over diagnosed by owners) Did the parasite cause the damage or has the parasite overproliferated on a sick animal. Parasites are commonly found on healthy indivduals - lice, present in low numbers on most birds - Mites (Cnemidocoptes) scaly face mite - red mite, must treat the environment and the bird Treament Pyrethrins withhold 2weeks Mectins withhold 28 days

Answer 31

Infectious causes of feather loss (bacterial / fungal) Presentation often non specific, focal infections (axillary dermatitis) or scattered diffuse disease. - swollen feather follicle, folliculitis Treatment - swab, gram stain, culture and sensitivity - provide systemic meds never topical - topical meds can prevent thermoregulation in birds.

Answer 32

Beak and feather (circovirus) Pathology - attacks rapidly dividing cells, new feather growth, bone marrow - more common in juveniles - all parrots (but less common in Sth American and cockateils - has been seen to jump species barriers - incubation can be short 3wks, but also may take years - horizontal and vertical transmission suspected Presentation - weakness and lethargy - dystrophic feathers and beak necrosis - loss of primary feathers - colour changes green to yellow, grey to red and blue to white Diagnosis (test quill contents rather than whole blood) - histopathology - serology - PCR very sensitive, may indicate exposure but not carry a current infection

Answer 33

Acute circovirus (beak and feather) - primarily affects black cockatoos and african greys - uncommon - sudden onset of weakness, lethargy in juveniles - regenerative anaemia and pancytopaenia - death within 24-48 hrs from liver necrosis. Usually mass casualties euthanasia is often the best option ethics wise

Answer 34

Chronic circovirus (beak and feather) Presentation - usually juveniles Cockatoos - Classic form cockatoos only, dystrophic feathers and beak necrosis - beak may be acutely painful (ethics) - loss of feather down, beak and dark feet Lorikeets - loss of primary flight feathers and tail - bilateral loss of outermost 3-4 primaries (lose ability to fly) - feather colour changes Treatment - some lorikeets appear to recover but continue to shed - most die within two years - ethics consider pain (beak necrosis) - best option is euthanasia

Answer 35

Polyomavirus (french moult) Pathology - All parrots affected, some finches - budgies mcaws, rarer in cockatoos - usually observed at the start of the breeding season - viraemic; rapid death, haemorrhagic pectoral muscles and internal bleeding - liver necrosis Presentation - french moult - often seen as massive increase in chick mortalities

Answer 36

Polyomarirus (french moult + haemorrhagic pectoral muscles) Diagnoses - histopathology - PCR (blood and cloaca - viraemia in blood will caese long before faecal shed Treatment - sometimes spontaneous recovery in budgies - stop breeding for a minimum of six months to stop the cycle - other breeds rarely recover euthanasia.

Answer 37

FDB Feather destructive behaviour Plucking / picking/ chewing / barbering - components not seperate disease. Multiple causes - underlying pain irritation (fractures neoplasia, dermatitis etc) - malnutrition, itchy, poor quality skin and brittle feathers - psychological problems The FDB plan - start be a complete history - followed by a thorough clinical exam - address any underlying pain - there is no test for the diagnosis of behavioural problems - avoid e collars or sedatives unless there is physical damage to tissue - litle evidence to support there use. - success is often reduced problem behaviour a complete cure is rare

Answer 38

FDB Feather destructive behaviour. 80/20 rule - In the wild birds spend 80% of their time foraging and only 20% of their time resting or preening - often in captivity this is reversed with birds spending 80% of their time resting / preening - this contributes to feather destructive behaviour due to boredom / stress Treatment - reintroduce active foraging for foods - baffle cages - scattering foods - multiple food dishes through out aviary - covering food dishes - pine cone parcels - add toys to destroy, social interaction

Answer 39

Basic anatomy of the avian respiratory system Head - internal nares - turbinates of the nasal cavity are for smell - infraorbital sinuses (warming and humidification) - glottis which opens into the wind pipe Lungs - paired - no diaphragm - non expanding ventral part is responsible for the majority of gas exchange Air sacs - Cervical air sac - thermoregulation and buoyancy - interclavicular paired air sac - anterior thoracic - posterior thoracic - abdominal air sac

Answer 40

The avian trachea Longer and wider than in comparable mammals - complete cartilage rings - narrows cranial to caudal, interlocking broad and narrow cartilage rings Syryinx - bifurcation into the bronchi - site of voice production - common site for tracheal obstruction as it narrows even further This severely limits our choice of ET tubes - never cuff a bird and inflate

Answer 41

Avian air sacs - single cervicle air sac - paired interclavicular air sac - anterior thoracic pair - posterior thoracic pair - abdominal pair of air sac - 3 air sac cranial to lung and 3 pairs caudal The unique anatomy of an air sac - poorly vascularised - common sites of infection - act primarily of bellows

Answer 42

Avian respiratory pattern (4 cycle respiration pattern) **There are multiple steps happening at once, constant uni-directional flow.** Inhalation 1. Primary - pulls air past lungs to posterior air sacs 2. Secondary - moves waste air into cranial air sacs Expiration 1. Primary - moves air caudal air sacs into lungs 2. Secondary - moves waste air out of body

Answer 43

Presentation of respiratory disease in avian patients Upper respiratory tract - sneezing - staining of the feathers above nares - sinus swelling - ocular discharge - matting or loss of periorbital feathers - from rubbing face on perches and wings Tracheal disease - usually an acute onset - coughing (often the only time we see coughing in avian patients) - open mouth breathing - neck stretchingaudible respiratory signs - distress Lung and air sac disease - Chronic onset - increased respiratory effort - mouth breathing - tail bobbing - sternal shift - weight loss

Answer 44

Sinusitis Hyperkeratosis of sinus mm - clearage mechanism inhibited. Predisposing factors - hypovitaminosis A from a poor diet - infectious, chlamydiosis, mycoplasmas - chemical irritants, ammonia

Answer 45

Sinusitis Treatment - parental vitamin A given as ADEC injectable - nebulising, steam as a mucolytic and drugs as required - nasal flushing - syringe in nares, invert bird and express (must be a conscious bird) - surgical flushing

Answer 46

Tracheal disease Pathology - functional extraluminal pressure - coracoid - infection/ pox, trichomonas, aspergillosis - - inhaled foreign body Treatment - Obstruction clear debris - very difficult area to debride, very good blood supply - acute onset, dyspnoea after coughing In extreme situations create an alternate airway with an air sac catheter, good for 3-5 days

Answer 47

Air sac rupture - typically traumatic but can be infectious (tissue damage) - depends on location but usually a simple fix - drain the air out with a small incision - end of a 18G needle in conscious birds - rarely must be repeated - avoid SC fluids in these birds

Answer 48

Differential list Lungs - parenchymatous disease caused by a hypersensitivity in Mccaws Air sacs - primary air saculitis often aspergillous or chlamydia - compression due to fluid build up - peritonitis, ascites - masses - egg stuck, anaemia To form a definitive diagnosis - cbc - biochem - radiology - direct endoscopy

Answer 49

Aspergillous Presentation - plaques and granulomas in tissue, lung and air sacs - occasionally seen outside the respiratory tract Pathology - Its everywhere - has species predilections ratites, raptors and african greys - immunosuppression; poor diet, concurrent disease or overcrowding may make birds susceptable - exposure high concentration at nesting site - - warm humid environment encorages sporulation Diagnoses - plaques and granulomas in sinuses are pathonomonic - leukocytosis with monocytosis and basophilia

Answer 50

Aspergillous respiratory disease (fungal) Diagnoses - plaques and granulomas - leukocytosis, monocytosis and basophilia - radiology, endoscopy Treatment - endoscopic debridement if singular plaque - amphotericin B nebulizing - itraconazole 6 months treatment expensive

Answer 51

Chlamydiosis (Highly contagious disease) Presentation - SBL - Csx vary with strain and virulence - respiratory mostly upper respiratory signs - conjunctivitis / matting of periorbital feathers - dyspnoea - sneezing - purulent nasal discharge - sinus distension and saculitis - insevere cases presents neurologically, tremors, torticollis Definitive diagnoses - GIT hepatic signs, diarrhoea, biliverdinuria (urates and urine) - SBL fluffed up, anorexic

Answer 52

Transmission highly contagious, via inhalation, ingestion of aerolised drolets - obligate intracellular bacteria g-ve - infection may be latent and activated by stress - think healthy at pet shop, with disease becomming activated with a change in environment - short lived immunity Shedding can start 72hrs after primary exposure and may shed for 7 days before csx develops.

Answer 53

Chlamydiosis Diagnosis - safest to assume when classical signs present, diagnostics take too long - PCR - biopsy / cytology - antibody detection on serology - biochem (AST / CK) - radiology very large spleen - biliverdinuria Treatment Tetracyclines - inhibit chlamydia protein synthesis remember intracellular bacteria so must be actively replicating to be effective 45 days duration of therapy

Answer 54

Polydipsia is usually secondary to polyuria Definitions Polydipsia - water intake in excess of double the daily maintenance requirement > 100ml/kg/day Polyuria - quantification is difficult but excessive urine output - often presented as diaorrhea from clients - subjective assessment by visual exam of droppings

Answer 55

Avian kidney; two types of nephrons Reptilian - no loop of Henle reduced ability to concentrate urine Mammalian nephron - contain a loop of Henle

Answer 56

Physiology of urine production in birds Plasma osmolarity - controlled by complex interactions between the hypothalamus. pituiatry gland and kidney - osmorereceptors and baroreceptors Argine vasotocin - avian equivalent of ADH, produced in the pituitary in response to increased osmolarity - acts on kidneys to reduce blood flow and increase absorption of urine output Cloaca - this is where urine is concentrated - backflushed from urodenum into coprodenum and then returns across the concentration gradient

Answer 57

Avian; effective osmoregulation requirements Sufficient functional nephrons - decrease with nephritis, nephrosis or renal gout Normal production and response to argine VT - diabetes insipidus / neurogenic (pituitary failure) - efficient cloacal reasorption (decreased stress, enteritis

Answer 58

Diabetes mellitus - hyperglycaemia Avian diabets mellitus - most common budgies, cockatiels and galahs - glucagon ; insulin ratio 2-5 time higher than in mammals - type one destruction of pancreatic islets - type two obesity - iatrogenic, administration of oestrogenics or corticosteroids which inhibit the effect of insulin

Answer 59

Glucose regulation Blood glucose is regulated by interactions between Insulin - anabolic hormone allows transfer of glucose into cells Glucagon - catabolic hormone, stimulates gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and glyconeogenesis increasing blood glucose Somatostatin - modulates glucagon and insulin

Answer 60

Avian diabetes mellitus Diagnosis - pu/pd, polyphagia and wt loss (but mostly lose protein so may still appear obese) - **persistent glucose >38-44 mmol/l** - A single reading is not diagnostic Treatment - management, lower blood glucose and restore glucose management - determine and correct primary disease - stabilise an unwell patient by providing fluids - correct hyperglycaemia , insulin, good diet and wt loss Kidney B = a diseased kidney

Answer 61

PU/PD Clinical signs - fluffed and lethargic - anorectic and increased thirst - regurg / vomiting particularly if polydipsic - persistent polyuria - lameness or wing droop from articular gout in chronic illness (shifting lameness frequently seen) Diagnosis **- Uric acid > 800umol/l** - elevated urea (but this is also caused by dehydration - mild anaemia 30-37% - radiographic renomegaly and / or minerlisation ( in health kidney sits between the head of the humerus and the acetabulum) Treatment - fluids - antibiotics / antiinflammatories - Colchicine - reduces UA and limits fibrosis

Answer 62

Gout UA precipitating out of the blood when saturation levels are exceeded (>800 umol/l) Accumulation; Visceral gout - acute renal insult, pericardium, myocardium and serosal surfaces usually die of heart failue Articular gout - slower, chronic renal failure, precipitates into cooler parts extremeties ?

Answer 63

GOUT - renal insult Diagnosis - articular gout; make an incision (tooth paste consistency) easy to identify crystals on a microscope slide Treatment for gout (Visceral gout usually only identified post mortem) Cholicine, Allopurinol - reduce UA analgesia (never use NSAIDS) remove trophi, but be careful the bleed profusely.

Answer 64

Heavy metal toxicity - Zinc and Lead A very common condition - in pet birds, cage wire, poorly designed toys and lead paint - aviary birds galvanised wire mesh, the poorer the quality the higher the lead Presentation - PU/PD - vomiting and diarrhea - lead = haematuria and ataxia or seizures

Answer 65

Heavy metal toxicity / Zinc and Lead Diagnoses - PU/PD - anaemia - zinc on biochem Uric acids - Blood lead - radiographs (but be careful not all that shines is metal, hyperechoic compare to leg band) Treatment Chelation** CA EDTA** - correct environment - can wash mesh with vinegar to cause super oxidisation - warm fluids, control vomiting

Answer 66

Avian female reproductive anatomy Female In the embryo there is two ovaries, but the left side preferentially develops Functional regions of the female reproductive tract Ovary - production and release of eggs Infundibulum - site of fertilisation Magnum - deposition of albumin Isthmus - membrane is added Uterus - shell produced + pigmentation Vagina - transport egg to the out side

Answer 67

Male reproductive tract / avian - two internal testicles - usually creamy white in colour but can be black cockatoos, Aus parrots - massive seasonal varitaion in testicular size.

Answer 68

Sexual development in avian species In birds sex is heavily controlled by the dose of a sex gene DMRT1 - single dose of DMRT1 = female - double dose DMRT1 = male, two copise of the gene cause birds to develop as male A male bird's secondary sexual characteristics like showy plumage, singing voice, size and dancing ability are controlled by the Z chromosome Males are homozygous ZZ Females are heterozygous ZW - female birds have a Z chromosone but it is prevented from producing testosterone via the inhibition of oestrogen - oestrogen inghbits the gene which would usually trigger male characteristics

Answer 69

Testicular cell tumour presentation - change in cere colour male to female (male blue) budgies - chronic weight loss and abdominal distension - unilateral paresis of leg due to the sciatic nerve Treatment - GNRH agonist desrelorin, short term - orchidectomy in cases with no metastatic disease

Answer 70

Phallus prolapse Ratites and ducks have large phallic organs - normally retract after use - 'overuse' may lead to a failure in the ability to retract - exposure may result in injury or necrosis Treatment - early cases may be managed with a purse string suture (never close) - may also require resection of damaged tissue

Answer 71

Salpingitis - inflammation of the fallopian tube Metritis - uterine infection Pathology; Primary infections are uncommon in domestic situations There are a number of predisposing factors - excessive egg laying / high producers - egg bound - excessive coelomic fat - malnutrition / seed diet - secondary infection following yolk retention Presentation SBL - weight loss but possible abdominal distension - ruffled plumage - anorexia - lethargy - if the birds are still laying eggs they often appear deformed soft shelled etc

Answer 72

Salpingitis / metritis Diagnosis There may be a leukocytosis, either heterophilic or monocytic - hypercalcaemia (reproductively active bird) - hyperamylasaemia - high amylase levels / pancreatitis - radiography may reveal retained eggs or enlarged oviduct - ultrasound may distinguish fluid, organ enlargement and retained eggs

Answer 73

Salpingitis / metritis Treatment - Short term Conservative treatment may be attempted, but is usually unsuccessful - reproductive rest through environmental cues - NSAIDS (meloxicam - need to be clear this is the end of the birds reproductive life Long term treatment - Salpingohysterectomy - although we do not remove the ovary and some birds may continue to ovulate leading to yolk related peritonitis.

Answer 74

Yolk related peritonitis Yolk related peritonitis is the result of an intense inflammatory reaction to ectopic yolk and ova in the coelom Pathology - Ectopic ovulation caused by either - failure of infundibulum to capture ovulating yolk (fat, trauma, disease) - or retropulsion of the yolk from oviduct into coelom (metritis association, or cystic hyperplasia) Presentation - This condition is usually seen in high producing hens especiatlly cockateils - usually sterile but if septic presents like septicaemia - fluid producing inflammatory reaction - dyspnoea, coelomic distension and weakness - production of malformed eggs (often elongated) - may develop secondary diseases

Answer 75

Yolk related peritonitis Diagnoses - marked leukocytosis - hypercalcaemia and lipaemia in breeding bird - ultrasound; coelomic fluid distension - coeliocentesis; brown to yellow coloured fluid with mesothelial cells Treatment Best salpingohysterectomy and surgery to lavage the coelom - remove inspissated yolk and adhesions - short term may manage through meloxicam, antibiotics and hormonal manipulation to stop ovarian activty

Answer 76

Egg binding (dystocia) This is a slowed passage of the egg through the oviduct. Pathology - within the uterine portion the egg will have a shell, proximal to this it will be incased in a membrane - it must be distinguished from egg retension. - loaded egg compresses blood vessels, nerves and cause potential obstruction of the rectum. Predisposing factors - old or young birds - high producers eg cockateils - malnutrition and obesity / all seed diets - lack of physical fitness in caged birds - concurrent disease.

Answer 77

Clinical Presentation - straining to pass an egg + persistent tail wagging + penguin wide stance - depression, lethargy - compression of nerves paresis, paralysis - compression of blood vessels leads poor organ perfusion and necrosis of the oviduct wall - dyspnoea, collapse and coelomic distension Diagnosis Mostly based off the history of egg laying eg a high producer who suddenly stops lay - palpation of the coelomic cavity reveals an egg (soft shelled eggs can be difficult to palpate)

Answer 78

Birds / egg binding TX If minimal distress - determine when bird last layed - calcium gluconate intramuscular injections 3-6hrs - adequate humidity and temp in a hospital cage - tube feed highly digestable sugar for a rapid source of energy Highly distressed animal - provide oxygen - PGE2 gel to produce uterovaginal sphincter dilation and muscular contractions - manual manipulation of the egg into the cloaca and delivery Take care not to push the egg up against the spine and kidneys.

Answer 79

Ectopic egg Failed passage of egg reguardless of treatment - This occurs due to rupture of the oviduct at the level of the shell gland - leaving a fully shelled egg loose in the coelom Management - coeliotomy to remove the egg and repair of the oviduct - good prognosis - some birds will return to lay eventually

Answer 80

Retained eggs The egg remains in the oviduct, but the bird no longer strains to pass it - egg may be collapsed (shell only) or intact Presentation - often asymptomatic or may have coelomic distension Diagnoses - radiographically, eggs may have an extensively thickened shell - salpingohysterectomy

Answer 81

Chronic egg lay As companion birds (cockatiels) will often excessively lay - wild birds two to three clutches a year - captive birds may lay this many in a month Predisposing factors - opportunistic breeders which lay their eggs depending on environmental cues - large amounts readily available food all year round - high fat sweet foods, fruits - constant lighting housed indoors - secure nest site'inapropriate handling Clinical signs Left untreated birds deplet their calcium reserves and develop problems such as egg binding or pathological fractures etc

Answer 82

Treatment for excessive egg laying (constant drive to lay eggs) The most important step address environmental cues - do not remove nest eggs / add fake plastic eggs - light cycle, social cues and diet - reduce fat and sugar in the diet - introduce more foraging behaviour - if environmental cues are removed may consider hormonal treatment or surgery

Answer 83

Pain Is a response to a noxious stimulus. Avian response to pain is by stimulation of the adrenal gland and subsequent release of corticosterone. Avian response to pain Acute pain - fight / flight - excessive vocalisation - wing flapping Chronic pain Most birds conservative-withdrawal responses - immobility - closure of eyes - inappetance - fluffing of feathers With chronic or overwhelming pain that the bird perhaps feels thay can not escape they may adapt and using masking behaviour to protect themselves. Localised pain - may present as self mutilation This is important as unrecognised pain may go untreated

Answer 84

Avian; multimodal therapy for pain 1. Remove the source of pain - splint the leg, remove foreign body etc 2. Reduce fear and stress - fear and stress may enhance the nocieption pathways - warm, safe, secure - judicious use of anxiolytics (midazolam) 3. Use several classes of drugs to treat pain at different nocieceptors.

Answer 85

The use of several classes of drugs / synergistic effects Different drugs act on different nocieceptors Peripheral nocieceptors detect a painful stimulus and transmit via nociceptive pathways a message to the brain, where central N perceive the pain. Inflammation in peripheral tissues may sensitise the peripheral N, invoking a more intense pain response at lower levels.

Answer 86

Avian patient analgesia Opiod; Tramadol, butorphanol - act predominantly on kappa receptors - central acting NSAID; Meloxicam, Ketoprofan - COX2 inhibition, act against the effects of prostaglandins in peripheral tissues A combination of these drugs has a more comprehensive effect as one is centrally acting while the other acts on peripheral nocieceptors.

Answer 87

Avian anatomy ; anaesthesia Trachea - complete rings, so unable to use cuffed ET tubes - often long trachea, so a large amount of dead space requiring higher flow rates - birds have air sacs and lung with no diaphragm Positioning - note ventral and lateral are usually the most comforatable for the bird - yet VD commonly used which places the weight of organs on the air sacs (access) - if intubating longer than ten minutes use intubation.

Answer 88

Avian metaboloism effects on anaesthesia (avian metabolism is higher) Avian patients have a higher risk of **hypoglycaemia** but also a higher risk of aspiration (air sacs) Only fast 3-4 hours - intubate and elevate the head Avian patients are also more at risk of heat loss - will begin to cool within 20 mins of induction / loss of voluntary muscle movement - active warming should be started prior to the pre med - radiant heating, warmed air (noting feathers can prevent the effects of a heating mat).

Answer 89

Avian surgical prep Take the time to stabilisze the patient true medical emergenicies rarely occur eg pre treat pain, hydration, pre oxygenation Surgical prep - Pluck feathers (do not clip or cut - minimise feather removal - just enough space to do the job at hand - chlorhex or iodine (alcohol will cool the patient through evaporation). - utilise transparent drapes / lone star retractor for draping and towel clamp around feathers not through the skin - maintain temperature Bair hugger feathers are insulating the bair hugger will ruffle feathers - if fluid loss anticipated (orthopedics) IV patient

Answer 90

Lone star retractor drape

Answer 91

Unique feature of avian skin as they relate to surgery Avian skin is only 1mm thick in some areas - skin is closely attached and very thin used as holding layer in avian patients - the subcutaneous layer is extremely fatty so will not hold sutures - additionally post op swelling tends to be reduced in avian patients -CAN'T GET PRIMARY CLOSURE, HEALING IS BY SECONDARY INTENTION This means for avian surgery holding sutures are placed as tightly as possible through the skin. (birds usually do not pick at skin sutures).

Answer 92

Avian blood loss Birds have a greater ability to with stand blood loss compare to mammals (fluid support, warmth and blood transfusion can still be utilised) 1. Increased capillary surface area - can restore blood volume through extravascular fluid resorption 2. Ability to mobilise large numbers of immature erythrocytes 3. Extrinsic pathway - lack autoimmune response to haemorrhage that leads to haemorrhagic shock

Answer 93

Heterophils Heterophils lack lysozymes - unable to liquify pus, so avian pus is caseated - drains do not work well in surgery (flushing is also not particularly effective) If you come across infected wounds - best to debride and leave to heal by secondary intention.

Answer 94

Ingluviotomy / crop repair Approach via apterylae (avascular area, skin then crop) - blunt disect to seperate and treat as two layers - remove foreign body - closure two layers of inverting sutures in crop then close to skin

Answer 95

Coeliomtomy Left flank or ventral midline appraoch - proventriculotomy, salpingohysterectomy, liver and kidney biopsy - intercostal muscles may bleed profusely, ligate where possible

Answer 96

Avian orthopedics (Illegal to amputate in wild species, amputation through bone preferred) Bones - light weight, this and brittle cortices, poor holding power for screws - do not consider in birds <1kg - often open and comminuted - blood supply - periosteal in humerus, endosteal in others - fracture callous may imping on ROM <1.5 bone widths from joint - bone healing is primary Rtae of healing determined by displacement of fragments, damage to blood supply, pressence of infection and movement at fracture site. Well aligned fractures will heal faster in birds when compared to mammals

Answer 97

Avian orthopedics External conservative repositioning using bandages - often better outcomes as it reduces complication rate - Figure of eight bandage, quality temporary support (first loop outer three primary feathers) - Tape splint Post operative antibiotics, banadage support and early return to function eg physiotherapy start at 1-2 days

Answer 98

Anatomical differences mice vrs rats Rtas and mice - obligate nasal breathers - omnivores - open rooted dentition with yellow tinge in the incisors dur to the incorportaion of iron into the enamel. Rats (4-5 years) - continuous feeders, no gall bladder as no need to store bile - mammary tissue 6 sets in rats Mice (2 years) - have a gall bladder

Answer 99

Mostly rats sterilised around 12 months of age Benefits - reduced fighting if owner has multiple animals - preventing unwanted pregnancy - eliminates the risk of testicular cancer - reduces the risk of many pituitary and mammary cancers - reduces male odour - red Often enables a better bond to develop between the owner and their pet. Sexing mice rats is via the ano-genital distance - twice as long in the male vrs the female

Answer 100

Signs of illness in mice and rats - increased porphyrin staining porphyrin containing secretions aid ocular lubrication and may play a role in pheromone mediated behaviour (red tinge) In health spread over the fur during daily grooming - increased snuffling sounds in the nose and upper respiratory tract - sneezing and mucous from the nose - breathing faster and harder - lumps / bumps - hair loss - weight loss lethargy - hunched back If dyspnea is suspected minimise handling, as the patient may die

Answer 101

Rats and mice respiratory disease The most common pathogens involve Mycoplasma Streptococcus pneumoniae

Answer 102

Mycoplasma (upper respiratory signs) Pathology (underlying stress disease, or disease allows mycoplasma proliferation.) - multifactorial; environmental, bacterial +/- viral - transferred by aerosolisation or female rat to her babies - normal habitant of the respiratory tract / opportunistic Diagnosis is difficult - collection of tracheal or nasal secretions is not reccomended swabbing can be highly traumatic.

Answer 103

Respiratory disease, Streptococcus pneumoniae Pathology - young rats more severely affected then older ones - may exhibit sudden death Mature rats - dyspnea, snuffling, abdominal breathing and a purulent exudate can be seen around the nares and paws (from wiping nostrils Diagnosis - tentative numerous gram +ve diplococci on a gram stain of exudate Treatment Amoxicillin / clauvulanic acid or penicillin

Answer 104

Ammonia The environment plays a major factor as ammonia building up in the environment can strip cilia from the respiratory tract Ammonia can destroy cilia, which then allows bacteria to enter the respiratory tract Solution - frequent thorough cleaning of rat cages - well ventilated cages with wires

Answer 105

Address respiratory disease in rats Treatment of respiratory disease is ofetn aimed at control rather then a cure. - unfortunately in rats once respiratory disease occurs, it usually is present for life - although resp signs may clear up with the right treatment they will likely recur Treatment - doxycycline - amoxycillin and clauvulanic acid

Answer 106

Common skin disorders mice and rats Barbering - dominant mouse, usually female nibbles off the whiskers and hair around the muzzle of cage mates. Fighting - usually male to male are more likely to fight and cause bite wounds - especially over the rump, tail and shoulders - reccomendation is to isolate the aggressor ontop of treating wounds in cage mates Mites / Lice are common - in affected animals the hair is generally thin especially in difficult to groom areas such as the head and trunk - greesy appearance to coat - puritis and self inflicted dermal ulceration may occur - Treatment ivermectin

Answer 107

Neoplasia mice and rats extemely common inbred strains >70% in some lines Pet mice most commonly - mammary tumours adenocarcinoma and fibrosarcoma - primary lung tumours - most are malignant and metastatic, often ulcerated by the time a diagnosis is made Rats primarily present with - fibroadenoma of the mammary glands - surgery is viable depending on size of the tumour, good prognosis - recurrence of fibroadenomas are common in rats with repeat surgeries often required - usually dont metastasize but may kill the rat due to space occupation.

Answer 108

Guinea pigs (very advanced off spring - desex can start breding 4-8 weeks of age (Desexing 5-6months F, and 3-4 months male) Must be bred or desexed prior to six months to avoid future dystocia. - a female guinea pig must have her first litter prior to six months of age - F at six months the pelvic bones become fused and can cause problems during labour - desexing reduces the risk of ovarian cyst - reduced risk of faecal impaction males In almost all cases sterilised guinea pigs will bond better with their owners and other guinea pigs

Answer 109

A sick guinea pig will often present with; - weight loss - reduced eating - eating only soft foods, no longer eating hay - drooling - diarrhea - lethargic - not grooming unkept coat - lumps and bumps anywhere on the body - sores on their feet A large % arepresented moribund collapsed, and severely hypothermic <35 End satge = poor prognosis

Answer 110

Parasites mites Often presented seizuring - the puritic response is so intense Presentation - hair loss - flaking - self excoriation of back, thighs, shoulders and neck Treatment - - ivermectin 2-3 treatments 10 days apart

Answer 111

Vitamin C deficiency Guinea pigs (unable to produce vit C, must obtain from fresh vege in the diet) Some animals are more susceptable - growing, pregnant, elderly or sick guinea pigs - a complete vit C deficiency results in a more rapidaly progressing form of disease Presentation - flaky rough coat / not puritic - painful swollen joints - lameness - teeth grinding vocalisation from pain - bloody urine or diarrhoea - stasis death Treatment - vitamin C via injection or oral medication - oxbow vitamin C supplement in water but note the vitamin is unstable in light - good quality guinea pig pellet food - fresh fruits and vege eg kale Vitamin C can be destroyed easily by light / heat - so the fed must be stored in a cool dark place.

Answer 112

Pododermatitis Pathology - The development of pressure sores on the feet of guinea pigs - most common on the heels and hind feet - early signs redness and inflammation of the exposed skin in guinea pigs - as the condition worsens may lead to lameness, swelling and ulcers Contributing factors (usualy a combination of factors) - hard floor surface such as carpet, wire - dirty damp bedding - poor diet, obesity and inactivity - deformity of the leg - small cages and lots of turning - trauma eg already existing inflammation

Answer 113

Tx pododermatitis in guinea pigs This is a difficult condition to treat successfully This is because even bearing weight on the affected limb will slow its healing - address underlying cause eg bedding, flooring, rads - sores must be treated debridementto remove any dead tissue - appropriate dressings and bandages - potential need for antibiotics "bootees if there are ulcers or open wounds

Answer 114

Faecal impaction (entire males >2-3 years of age) Pathology - increased size of testicle and fat becomes deposited in the scrotal sac - this prevents faeces from leaving the rectum - the area dilates to accomodate more faeces - still able to pass normal faeces but usually show symptoms of straining to defaecate or unusual odour Prevention / treatment - prevented by early castration - treat cleaning 1-10 times a week depending on boar.

Answer 115

Vestibular disease Presentation - head tilts, rollings and "seizures" nystagmus Causes - bacterial infection, ear infections and protozoan infections - trauma TX - ear examination and radiograph

Answer 116

Dental disease guinea pigs Pathology - lack of fibre eg pellets or piggy mixes - open rooted teeth which continuously grow - the lower cheek teeth in GP are curved inwards - when not ground down appropriately they will grow towards each other and eventually entrap the toungue - interfers with GP ability to chew and swallow Presentation - stops eating hard foods or any food at all - weight loss - fewer smaller droppings - excessive saliva (drooling) - leading to fur matting under the jaw

Answer 117

Guinea pig maloclussion (low fibre growth of lower cheek teeth) Diagnosis - oral exam, nasal speculum - potential rads to confirm degree of overgrowth Treatment - surgery to grind down teeth - requires special dental jigs to open the mouth as oral cavity very small - grind teeth back with dremel / dental burs - prevention a diet including atleast 70% grass/ quality hay oat, timothy + 20% fruit/vege - guinea pigs also require daily supplementation with 25-50mg of vitamin C tablets May need to be carried out as freqently as every six weeks if chronic changes

Answer 118

Ovarian cyst Most commonly occur in entire females 2-5 years of age - cystic changes present on ovaries - functional ovarian cyst secrete hormones which may cause bilateral symetrical hair loss in the flank region - crusty nipples - also may cause irrtability or discomfort in the abdomen - may be associated with uterine disease Ovarian cyst if left untreated can become significant space ocupying masses - causing anorexia, depression or lethargy - increase in size with time and may also form adhesions.

Answer 119

Ovarian cyst guinea pigs Diagnoses - is usually by abdominal palpation but may be confirmed via ultrasound Treatment - short term ultra sound guided aspiration under sedation = temporary solution with risks - Exploratory laporatomy to remove cyst and ovariohysterectomy (best option)

Answer 120

Ecdysis - skin shedding / sloughing Physiology - snakes tend to shed the entire skin in one piece from snout to vent - lizards occurs piece meal - the shed is colourless because the pigment cells remain in the dermal layer Physiology - Shed is controlled by the thyroid gland - the cells in the intermediate layer replicate to form a new layer epidermis - lymph diffuses into the area between the two layers and enzymes are released at the cleavage zone - old skin shed - new skin hardens to form new skin Snakes takes around two weeks may become sluggish and go off food.

Answer 121

Dyssecdysis - failure to shed This usually occurs due to environmental humidity or when the reptile is ill. - malnutrition and debiliatation leads to dehydration and hypoproteinaemia, rendering them unable to produce enzymes for the production of the cleavage zone

Answer 122

Sex determination techniques in reptiles Techniques vary between groups and between species and within those groups - many species have limited external features eg snakes Probing snakes - most reliable and safe in most species - determine the depth of hemipenal pockets with a blunt probe (longer in males) - clean crop needle, probing needles may be purchased (except green tree pythons) Snakes - males may present with large cloacal spurs Lizards - probing may cause damage - Popping forcing hemipenal exposure with digital pressure - visual differences between the sexes (sexual dimorphism) - Radiographs - monitor calcified hemibacula - hemipenal translumination Turtles - tail length - notch - plastron shape

Answer 123

Metabolic bone disease A complex intercation between the uptake and utilization of calcium and vitamin D3 with adequate and appropriate exposure to UV light. The initiating factors can take place well before new owners take possession. bent malformed bones.

Answer 124

Metabolic bone disease Early onset - associated directly with a lack of UV / and or calcium in new hatchlings - may develop 7 days post htach Late onset MBD - one month onwards - appear to initiate growth normally, but as growth accelerates problems arise - structural components of the body collapse under increased weigt gain associated with growth - may also have seizures, weakness andoccasional spinal fractures Delayed onset - Often well past 12 months of age - spontaneous fractures to the spine or limbs - sudden paralysis - weakened skeleton

Answer 125

Reptile; fatty liver obesity Fear of underfeeding causes the opposite effect Pathology - constant feeding - there is also frequently a push for power feeding - forced growth rates result in misshapen, overweight individuals with shortened lifesapns - pin head snakes Fatty liver is often observed in lizards - simple result of constant feeding - prevention of brumation through out winter is a common scenario -deaths are usually brought about by haemorrhage from fragile friable liver - to treat do not starve risk of lipaemia, fluid therapy essential Treatment may take months to years to achieve a resolution and weight loss

Exotics and wild life Flashcards

Test one 5% (152 cards)