Families Flashcards
(90 cards)
1
Q
couples
Different types of conjugal roles
A
conjugual role: refers to the separation of roles within the household based
integrated conjugual roles: There are few divisions between the roles of men and women within the family
2
Q
couples
Two explanations for unequal division of labour
edgell
A
-
cultural explanations- divisions is determined by partriarchal norms and values in our society. society expects women to perform domestic labour
- e.g. gender wage gap. = despite equaql qualifications/job performance, womnen often work low paid part timee jobs, society prioritises men as breadwinners. - material explanations - women earn less money than men which means its more economically benefitial for them to do childcare and housework while men perform the breadwiner role.
3
Q
couples
same-sex couples and gender scripts
A
- radical feminists argues that heterosexual couples are patriachal and unequal - even when women are in paid-work.
- they contrast with same-sex couples e.g. dunne discovered that lesbian couples with children found a more equal division of labour.
- men are taught their superior - 1in 4 experience violence - taight to be submissive
- dunne uses the idea of gender scripts: heterosexual couples were socialised into gender scripts that set out different masculine/feminine roles and gender identities
- lesbians did not link households taks to gender scripsts, so they were more open to negotiation and thus more equal
4
Q
resources and decision making
A
- Inequality similarly exists in terms of decision making and resources.
- Barrett: Men gain more from women’s domestic work than they give back in financial support.= Men usually make the decisions about spending on important items.
- In many households women have no entitlement to a share of household resources. The money that she does have she will see as it should be spent on the children. Therefore most women are in poverty, even in houses with adequate incomes!
- Pahl & Vogler (Feminist Sociologists) : Two main types of control over family income
- Allowance System – Men give non-working wives an allowance to budget and meet the family’s needs.
- Pooling – Both partners have access to income and have joint responsibility for spending – e.g. joint bank account.
5
Q
the dark side of the family
domestic violence
A
- defined as Physical, emotional, sexual abuse
1. RADICAL FEMINIST EXPLANATION: Dobash and Dobash– domestic violence is evidence of patriarchy. Men dominate women through domestic violence. - however - Not all men are aggressive, How about female violence against men and children?Lesbian domestic violence? = For example, the ONS shows that w/c women, women struggling with illness and young women were more likely to experience domestic violence than others
1. materialist explanation- Focuses on economic and material factors such as inequality. - Some groups e.g. children, the poor are also more likely to be at risk
- wilkinson argues that lack of resources, money and time results from stress of family members caused by inequality and poverty.
- marxists feminits also see inequality producing domestic violence. ansley
- evaluation: Ignore the impact of domestic violence on the victim and justifies the behavior of the violent individuals
6
Q
couples
Symmetrical family
w+y
A
- willmott and young argues that family life is gradually becoming more symmetrical - they believe that it is becoming more equal.
- Men and women share roles within the family more equally including leisure time = men have become more home-centred
- men help with housework+chilcare =’the new man’
- This is due to changes in women position and higher standards of living
&
Geographical mobility - more couples live away from the communities in which they grew up in
however this is critisced by feminist, they believe that w+y exagerrate men’s role, and that women can never become equal as they still perform the dual burden of paid work+domestic = oakley.
7
Q
functionalist view of the fam
A
- Functionalists see the family as one of the essential institutions for a stable societies.
- They tend to to see the nuclear family as the ideal family for industrial societies.
- They believe that society is based on a value consensus – a set of shared norms and values – into which society socialises its members.
- This enables its members to cooperate harmoniously to meet society’s needs and achieve shared goals.
8
Q
Murdock 4 functions of the family
A
- Stable satisfaction of the sex drive (sexual)– within monogamous relationships= prevents inferentiality
- The biological reproduction of the next generation – without which society cannot continue.
- Socialisation of the young (education) – teaching basic norms and values
- Meeting its members economic needs – producing food and shelter for example. (in modern society it has become a unit of consumption only)
by performing these functions, the nuclear family heelps to maintain social stability.
9
Q
criticism of Murdock
A
- Feminist argues that traditional family structures typically disadvantage women. = benefit men more.
- Functionalism may prevent social change, as it encourages individuals to stick to specified roles. It also sees non-participation in society as undesirable, as this can lead to anomie
- Functionalists theories do not always reflect family life (married people live in harmony, good in bed, effective socialisers).
- other institutions could perform the functions above.
10
Q
Parsons 2 irreducible functions of the fam
Result of the loss of functions: 2 irreducible functions
A
similar to murdock, males and females are biologically suited.
- Primary socialisation of the young - equipping the next generation with basic skills and society’s values. = to not become deviant - gender role socialisation. If primary socialisation is done correctly then boys learn to adopt the ‘instrumental role’ – they go on to go out to work and earns money. Girls learn to adopt the ‘expressive role’ – doing all the ‘caring work’, housework and bringing up the children.
- Stabilisation of adult personalities - often referred to as the ‘warm bath theory (the idea the males coming home to the family will be equivalent of getting a warm bath, capable of soothing and washing away the worries of work) this enabling adults to relax so they can return to the workplace and perform their roles effectively. = provided emotional security
11
Q
functionalists
parsons division of labour
A
- identifies two marital roles: the instrumenal role of the male breadwinner and the expressive role of the female carer
- ## this division of labour is functional = he sees this division as biologically based = so that everyone benefits from this specialism.
12
Q
Parson - organic analogy - functionalist
A
- argued that the family was a part of the organic analogy.
- society is made up of different but interdependent parts such as insitutions like the education system, religion etc
- The human body is an analogy of society. If an organ fails, the body suffers, just like if the family becomes dysfunctional, society would collapse. - anomie
13
Q
Marxist view of the Family
A
- Take a conflict approach and view the family as a state agency which serves to spread the dominant ideology = promoting false consciousness to maintain capitalism.
- They work alongside media and education as agents of social control within the organic analogy. They see the family as helping class inequality, benefiting capitalism.
The nuclear family performs:
- ideological functions for Capitalism & teaches passive acceptance of hierarchy (Zarestky)
- acts as a unit of consumption
- inheritance of property (Engels)
14
Q
The family as an Ideological Apparatus - Zarestky
A
- children are socialised into false consciousness and passive acceptance/obedience of the inequalities of capitalism. = think that inequality is justifiable and the capilaist system is unchangeable
- this is achieved when there is a hierarchy in most families.
- Teaches children to accept there will always be someone in “authority” who they must obey, (parental power) which then prepares them of the hierarchy of boss-worker in paid employment in later life.
he also agues
That the family acted as a “safe haven” from the oppression and exploitation of capitalism whereby they could managed there resentment of it which helped to maintain capitalism by preventing revolution or resistance.
15
Q
Engels: Inheritance of property
A
- The family exists so men can pass their private property onto their biological offspring, notably a son.
- Its essential for monogamy (no inferentiality) - women was seen as essentially “prostitutes” who give sex under male control (reproductive purposes) for children in exchange for economic stability.
- ensuring that wealth remained in the hands of the bourgeoisie
- therefore when rich people die it is their children who keep hold of their wealth.
- The solution is to overthrow capitalism
16
Q
Marxists function :
The family is a Unit of Consumptions
A
- Nuclear families are brainwashed into thinking capitalism is fair = which teaches lower generations to conform with the capitalist system.
- Families must keep up with the material goods/services acquired by their neighbours and peers e.g. family holidays, cars – this is known “Keeping up with the Joneses”
- The media targets children to persuade their parents through pester power to buy more expensive items.
17
Q
overall critic of the functions of the fam: Marxism
A
- it’s too deterministic – it assumes people passively accept socialisation and family life, and that the future is pre-determined. There are plenty of families who reject this lifestyle and many families bring their children up to be independent thinkers = increases their social mobility. - can resist indoctrination
- The Marxist perspective ignores family diversity in capitalist society, the nuclear family is no longer the main type of family.
- In fact, family breakdown may be better for Capitalism – as divorce is expensive and more money has to be spent on maintaining family relationships and later on forming new families.
18
Q
The new man
A
The ‘new man’ means couples have an equal share of housework and childcare.
e.g. strolling baby in buggy
19
Q
keyword
dual burden
oakley
A
- women now do paid and domestic work
- research findings: 15% of husbands had a high level of participaation in households.
Rejects the March Of Progress view
20
Q
keyword
triple shift = supporting evidence
Dunscombe and Madsen
A
- Women not only carry the dual burden of low paid and unpaid domestic work, but also have to do the emotional work.
- Women are encouraged to be more expressive and ‘emotional’ than men
- means that it is women who make more effort to make marriages and families work emotionally, by looking after children, reassuring fragile egos, comforting.
- howvevr sometimes wasnt always in return - dobash and dobash provide suppoeting evidence. they found violence was triggered when husbands felt that their authority was being challenged. they conclude that marriage legitimate violence by giving power to men
- seperatley - triple shift this is evident in contemporary society - during lockdown - many woman had the burdern of working from home, looking aftert the children and as well emotionlly be there for there kids - leading to overburdern
21
Q
a further contribution of parson
Parson:
functional fit theory
Pre-industrial vs industrial
+
Evalutation
Loss of Functions
A
- Parsons has a historical perspective on the evolution of the nuclear family
- suggested the nuclear family formed as an adaptation to industrialisation
- His functional fit theory is that as society changes, the type of family that ‘fits’ that society, and the functions it performs changes too
- society has moved from pre-industrial to industrial
- Pre-industrial society based on agriculture, basic standards of living. = usually 3 generational extended family - everyone had a respobinily for the socialistion of the children = large family unit ‘fitted’ pre-industrial society
- There was also less need for the extended family as more and more functions, such as health and education, gradually came to be carried out by the state.
- as a result of industralisation, the families have become smaller - The nuclear family fits the more complex industrial society better, but it performs a reduced number of functions.
- critics: nuclear family argued not to have evolved due to industrialisation. outdated view. contemporary family types as suggested by W+Y argues the hardship of the early industrial period gave rise to ‘mum-centred’ w/c extended family
22
Q
parson division of labour
A
Men and women have biologically suited roles that are functional for society:
Expressive role - Women = Homemaker (involves cooking, cleaning and looking after children)
Instrumental role - Men = Breadwinner (involves paid work, earning the income for the family)
23
Q
Bott division of labour
A
Segregated conjugal roles - Division of labour between men and women, couple spends leisure time separately
Joint conjugal roles - couples share domestic tasks and leisure time.
24
Q
overall evaluations of the functionalist
A
- ignores that single parent families can be adequately socialise
- dysfunction of the family (not always in harmony/effective socialisers e.g. dark side of fam, toxic childhood)
- Parson research is based on white American family. Doesn’t represent wider society (e.g. south Asian extended family)
- feminist argues that the family benefits men more than women
25
Marxist Feminism
Capitalism is the main form of women's oppression in the family and this performs several functions for capitalism:
* **Reproducing the labour force** - women socialise the next generation of workers. - links to inheritance of poverty
* **Absorbing men's anger** - *Ansley* - **soak** their **husbands frustration** from being **exploited at work**.= This **alienation and crisis of masculinity** is absorbed by women in the family- they are “***takers of shit***.”
This can result in **domestic violence as men exert their control and authority at home**
* **A reserve army of cheap labour** - when **not needed**, women workers can **return to their primary unpaid domestic role**. - They see the oppression of women in the family as **linked to the exploitation of the working class**.
They believe the **family must be abolished alongside a socialist revolution**
X: it **ignores** the **positive** experiences that some **women** have from being a **wife and mother in a nuclear family.**
- also **outdated**- very few families will fit **the traditional nuclear family structure today**- it **ignores** diversity and **dual- career families**.
26
Liberal Feminist
evaluation
| liberal = happy
- Take a ***march of progress*** view in suggesting **gender inequality is gradually being overcome** through reform and **policy change** = **equal pay act/ sex discrimination act** - *not feel alientated/inferior but break barriers - achiv*e glass ceiling , which **changes people’s attitudes** towards socialisation and challenges stereotypes.
* For example, the rise in **the new man is becoming more widespread** = doing domestic work
* rise of Symertical fam/ dual earning - botts - joint congugaual roles
evaluation:
- dual burden (Oakley)/ triple shift
- ingrained belief that women are caregivers
27
# DELPHY \+LEONARD
Radical Feminist
| links to delphy and leonard
- The family and marriage are the key institutions in a patriarchal society, = **men benefit from the women’s** **unpaid domestic labour and sexual services**, as well as **dominate them through violence or the threat of it.**
- Radical feminists also believe the **patriarchal system needs to be overturned**, and the only way to achieve this is **through separatism,** meaning women need to **organise themselves to live independently to men.**
- she furthers he point and suggest that women should resuly in '**political lesbianism**' - the idea that **heterosexual couples are inevitable, oppressive because they involve '*sleeping with the enemy'***
- X: Functionalist - disrupts thae status quo - disable adequate socialisation
28
Difference feminist
**Not all** women share the **same** **experience of oppression**; women of different **ethnicities, class, ag**e etc may have different experiences of the family.
e.g. **black feminism** especially view the **family positively** as opposed ofv it being patriachal as**a source of supports/resistance of racism.**
class: **Middle class women** may have **more cultural capital** and may be more **economically *independent* than *working* class women**. - They may be ***in a better position to combat patriarchal controls***
evaluation:
Other feminist believe that **all women share many of the same experience**.
e**.g. low paid, risk of domestic violence**.
29
new right view of the family
| murray
**A biologically-based division of labour** - the division of labour **between a male breadwinner and a female homemaker**, **dependent child** is natural and biologically determined.
According to new rights the decline of nuclear families is due to **Fatherless families**. **They are to blame for a violent disorder in society that children display**. **lack of dispilinarian (usually performed by fathers**) results in the youth to be **socialised inadequately resutling in things such as high crime rates, educational fai**lure
Families (**mothers**) should be **self-relian**t - cant look after/finincally suppoort kids - reliance on **state welfare** leads to a **dependency culture** and **undermines traditional gender roles**. - social policy solution for poverty actually makes the problem worse e.g. **weaken families own self reliance.**
It **produces a family breakdow**n and an **increase of lone-parent families**, which results in s**ocial problems due to poor socialisation**. =
30
# coulf b4e evaluation of functionalism and Marxism
personal life perspective
| **SMART**
- believes that we are **not disembedded individuals**, but we **make decisions** about relationships within a **‘web of connectedness**’.
- Looks at **relationships** that i**ndividuals see as significant** and **gives a sense of identity, belonging and relatedness (pets, friends etc.)**.
evaluation:
- Interactionists believe that structural approaches assume that the t**raditional nuclear family is the dominant type of family**. - This **ignores** the increased **diversity of families today.**
31
Family types
Beanpole: ***vertically extended e.g. grandparents***
Extended: A group of Kin, extended beyond the nuclear family.
Household: a group of people living together
Living apart together: in a relationship but don’t live together
Reconsistuted: a step-family (from a previous relationship)
32
The Rapport: 5 types of family diversity
They argue that we have moved away from the traditional nuclear family.
Families have adapted to a **pluralistic society (diverse in culture)**
Organisational diversity
Cultural diversity
Social class
Life-stage
Generational
33
Cultural diversity
Different cultural, religious and ethnic groups have different family structures.
Example:
* There is a higher proportion of **female-headed families among Afro-Caribbean households**.
34
Social class diversity
Differences in family structure are partly the result of income differences between households of different classes.
35
Life stages
•Family structure depends on the point at which you find yourself in your life-cycle.
E.G.
- Newlyweds
- Couples with children
- Retired couples whose children have left home
- Widows/widowers who live alone
36
Generational diversity
Defined as older and younger generations having different attitudes and experiences that reflect the historical periods in which they have lived.
Example:
Morality about divorce, cohabitation, children born outside of marriage & homosexuality might be very controversial to one generation and a non-issue to another.
37
**Chester** and the **neo**conventional family
| neo - new
* There has been some **increased family diversity in recent years**. However, unlike the new right, he does not regard this as very significant
* the only important change is a **move from the conventional nuclear family**. he describes this as the **‘neo conventional’ family**.
* The Neo-Conventional Family (**the new norm**) – **a dual-earner** family in which both spouses go out to work – **similar to the symmetrical family of Young and Wilmott**
38
Family diversity:
The idea that there is a range of different family types extended beyond the nuclear family.
39
Feminist criticisms of the new right
The **oppression of women** still occurring **(based on patriarchy**) keeps women working, **keeps decisions made by men.**
***Oakley*** argues that the new right **wrongly** assumes that **husbands & wives roles are fixed by biology.**
Smart points out, it may be poverty that causes the breakdown of relationships, rather the decisions not to marry.
40
Cohabitation & marriage (**Bensons** point)
1. He found that the **baby’s first years of the baby’s life**, the rate of family **breakdown** was much **higher** among **cohabiting couples.**
2. **Marriage** is more **stable** because it **requires a deliberate commitment to each other**, **whereas cohabitation does not avoid commitments**
41
Ageing Population
is one where the proportion of older people is increasing.
42
What are the causes of ageing population
- **increasing life expectancy**: people are living longer
- **increased retirement age:** An ageing population means the dependency ratio has increased - there are fewer working aged people around to support pensioners
- **Declining infant mortality:** not many people die early in life.
- **Declining fertility**: fewer younger people are being born in relation to the number of older people in the population
- **increased taxation** by the government: to deal with the two-fold pressure of increased spending and less revenue, governments are likely to impose more and higher taxes to meet the social welfare needs of an older population - money on healthcare this may impact the family = may be a smaller facility, may be extended so bigger size to pay
43
What is ageism?
Discrimination against other age groups. E.G. some may say that older adults may be too old for employment
44
Negative stereotypes and unequal treatment people on the basis of their age:
- Discrimination in employment
- unequal treatment in healthcare
- the way in which old age is constructed (how we think & talk about old age)
- E.G. the cost of pension or healthcare for the old
45
Modernity
| modern sciety and old age
refers to:
- The growth of cities
- Nuclear family – geographically mobile
- Scientific and rational thinking rather than religion
with old age
* The old are largely excluded from paid work = economically dependent on their families/the state
* Marxist says that the old are of **no use in capitalism** because they are no longer productive. Consequently the state is unwilling to support them so the *burden falls upon the family*
* Ageism is a result of structured dependency
46
Giddens - Postmodernity
- Giddens believes that Society has become ‘**disembedded’** from **traditional family structures, *leaving us free to choose how we live our lives***. This has led to the **‘pure relationship’** - one that exists s**olely to satisfy each partner's needs**.
- cultural diversity and hybridity: globalisation
- Highly individualised society
- people question traditionally accepted values, morals and norms
47
Globalisation in postmodernism
* Globalisation is a key feature. It refers to the interconnectedness of society
* According to sociologist ***Beck***, due to globalising systems, we are in an information society; however, we are also in a **risk society.**
* Beck claimed that **globalisation**'s ability to bring people **closer together** presents **many man-made risks**, most notably the increased **threat of terrorism**, cybercrime etc
* The strengths of the concept of postmodernity are that it **recognises the changing nature of society and social structures/processes**, and challenges our assumptions.
48
Postmodern society and old age
- Postmodern society is more **fragmented**, which is the breaking down of shared norms and values. Fragmentation leads to more **personalised and complex identities** and lifestyles.
- **Greater choice of freedom**
- **Media = portray positive reprsntation of lifestyles of the elderly**
- EVAUATION: **Negative stereotype**s still **exist** for the **elderly**, particularly among **women**. e.g. the assumption of them being "**out of touch" with modern advancements. = unable to use other digital devices proficiently.**
49
Migration
The movement of people from place to place
50
**I**mmigration
Movement **i**nto a society
51
# keyword
Emigration
* Movement **out** of a society
* emigrating have been economic
* push factors: e.g. conflict, poverty etc
* pull factors e.g. higher wages/better opportunties(educations)
52
Net migration:
The differences between the number of immigrated and emigrate
53
The pros of immigration from a functionalist perspective
- Qualification may not be recognised (This results in the undertaking of low skilled work)
- Role allocation enables social order
A Marxist would dislike this because it strengthens capitalism by providing them with an exploitive work force.
54
reasons for the decline in birth rates
1. **Changes in the position of women** - Increased educational opportunities, more women in paid work, change in attitude towards family life and the women's role, wider access to abortion and contraception.
2. **Fall in infant mortality rate** - improved technology & knowledge of child health. more children are survive to adulthood. these advances aslo makes it more likely that women will delay having children.
3. the availibility and effictivenes of **contraception** in recent years has enabled women to have greater control over their reproductive rights. leagalisatioon of abortion has enabled the control of unwanted pregnancies. also greater awareness of sexually transmitted infections has led to greater usage of contraception in relationships
3. **Child centredness** - childhood is now socially constructed = parents focus on *quality not quantity*, meaning they have fewer children but more attention and resources on them.
55
**impact** for the decline birth rate
* due to life expectancy overtime = due to advancement in medicine, the creation of the nhs and the welfare state = higher standards of living
* The dependency ratio increases - the relationship between the size of the working population and the non-working (dependent) population.
* Women are having fewer children because this reduces the ‘**burden of dependency’.**
* Public services - fewer schools, child health services etc.
* **changes to lifetyles: healthier diets, more activiwe and awareness of illness**
56
Postodernist on ageing population
| **HUNT**
We can c**hoose our identity** no matter what **our age is: our age no longer determines who we are.**
As a result of this, t**he elderly become a market for body maintenance and rejuvenation services and goods**, such as cosmetic surgery, gym membership and **anti-ageing products.**
57
increasing divorce rates
- **Legal changes** - divorce has become **easier to access**; (eg. irretrievable breakdown).
- **Less stigma** - divorce has become more **common** and **widely accepted**. = **Secularisation** - decline in religious influence on society.
- **Higher expectations of marriage** - the rising expectation of marriage **based** upon **unrealistic scenarios shown in movie**s has led to the **dissatisfaction** amongst **many couples (*Fletcher*)**.
- **Women’s financial independence** - more women are now in **paid employment**, and **lone parent welfare benefits are available**. Women are **less economically dependent on a man**, and can afford divorce.= ***Allan and Crow*** argue that marriage is ***‘less embedded within the economic system now***’. ***Family is no longer a unit of production, so spouses are not dependent on each other economically**
58
decreasing marriage rates
- **Changing attitudes** - **less pressure to marry**
- **Alternatives to marriage (such as cohabitation**) are less stigmatised, same sex couples
- Women’s economic independence
- **Impact of feminism** - some women now see **marriage** as a **patriarchal institution**
- **Rising divorce rates** - this may put women off marrying
59
partnerships
- More people are living together without being married = **cohabitation**. **(secularisation, less stigma and cost**)
- Increase in **same-sex partnerships** (secularisation and stigma)
- More people l**iving alone** (*life expectancy and don't want to remarry*)
- living apart togrther **LAT** = **could be couples who are widows who chose to live in seperate houses**
- **cohabitation has replaced marriage**
60
Childbearing and Childrearing
* Women have **opportunities** to **perform in roles other than being mothers**. = women are becoming **more** ivolved in **higher education/delaying marriage**
* The **increase in secularisation** means people **may not feel as pressured to follow religious values** around child-bearing. There is also **less *stigma* around *sex* that is not for *reproducing*.**
* The means and **availability of contraception** have improved and couples are **delaying having children**. E.G. **freezing eggs**.
* In addition, it **costs** a lot to have **kid**= **£150,000**, educate and support children. **QUALITY > QUANTITY** = rise of **child-centred society** can **impact** on **the costs of raising children**
- **Radical feminists** are still **unhappy** with women being the **main caregivers**
- **greater indicidualism** in lifestyles have meant that couples are more likely to **wait until later in life to have children**
61
Social policy
refers to the plans and **actions of state agencies** such as health and social services, the welfare benefits system
E.g.
- laws governing marriage and divorce
- education policies
- child protection laws
- chinas one child policy
62
functionalists perspeective on family policy
- parsons, advocated **reinforcing** the **nuclear family through social policie**s, such as **tax incentives for married people**
- they belivev in **limited state involvemen**t, however
- traditional vlaues are in opposition to some of the more progressive policies, such as same sex marriage
63
marxists perspecctive on family policy
- criticial of the state in creating social policy, suggesting that they are **designed to serve the needs of the elites** e.g. childcare policies will enable more people to work
- state can effectively '**police the family**', by intervening where they believe that the family is not socialising children correctly
- state policy is **based upon ruiling class ideologies** and those that do not conform face sanctions
64
# SOCIAL POLICY
Maternity and Paternity Policy
parents have the right to share the care of their child in the first year after birth.
Women in employment retain their right to 52 weeks of maternity leave.
this ensure the protection of the child e.g. plamer study
65
# SOCIAL POLICY
Adoption act
| New Labour
In 2005, under **New Labour**, the law on adoption changed, **giving unmarried couples, including gay couples, the right to adopt on the *same* basis as married couples.**
66
# SOCIAL POLICY
Civil partnership & same sex marriage
The Civil Partnership Act gave ***same-sex couples the rights and responsibilities similar to those in a civil marriage.***
67
policies that have affceted the experience of childhood
* changes to education provision/ **the introduction of cumpolsory education**
* policies on the extent and cost of child care provision
* childrens right and law working
* **adoption/fostering policies**
* sure sharp
68
# in favour of nuclear familty
conservative - social policies
- **banned promotions of homosexuality** by local authorities = same sex- education, w**ouldnt be allowed to be taught in schools**, as it **deviates away from the hetero-norm**
- ***The child support act*** - allows the **children to still performs their gendered roles**
- however the **marxist would say that the *pressure* to perform the instrumental role** = the productive level will increase - **depending on the dads willingless to accpet exploitation will increase.**
- if **policies** like this w**erent put in plac**e then **this means that women will have to put in workor even more**
69
# left - eing
new labour
- introduced **parenting order** for parents of **truants and young offenders**
1. **working families tax credits** - provided a **tax allowance** for families with children - regardless of whether they were married to **help for childcare** = **Fletcher** **takes** a **functionalist stance** and claims such policies are positive as these **support the family in peforming their functions more effectively** - ***ensures that material needs are met***
- new rights will dislike this Flethere **relies** all on **dependcy culture**
1. **THE NEW DEAL:** encouraged **lone mothers back into work**,**increased maternity leave** from 14 weeks to 9 months and almost doubled maternity pay.
- **Smart** argue that *New Labour* ***rejected* New Right's view that the family should have just the male as the wage earner, and that women can work too.**
- Opposingly, **Leonard** argues that even when policies ***appear* to benefit women**, they **act as a form of patriarchal social control** (**more maternity leave instead of paternity leave**)
- r***einforces paitrachal conceptions*** - women **perform a flase consciousness** - told they **should be confied to the home.**
70
# BOTH CONSERVATIVE AND LABOUR
COALITION
| materially depreivw]ed
1. **Troubled families programme**
* ***Donzelot*** would argue this is a way of carrying out the **'surveillance**' of families, **acting as a form of state power** and control. He claims professionals (**social workers, police** etc) ***use their power and 'expert knowledge' to control families into conforming to societal standards***.
* He calls this the **"Policing of families"**.
* **there is no actual suppor**t - **more of a threat**, ***nothing helped the route casue of material dep - it was more of a fom of control***.
1. **Capping child benefits (only 2 children**)
- **forces families to share the same budget they had for two children among three, four or more**. What if a mother is trying to flee an abusive relationship? Increases financial dependence on the male
- **disrupts the productive function**
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# sociasl policies
Gender regimes
| Drew
***Drew*** – describe how **social policies in different countries** can either **encourage** or **discourage** **gender equality in the family and at work.**
E.g.:
* ***Familistic gender regimes*** – policies are based on a **traditional gender division between male breadwinner and female housewife.**
(**In Greece there is little state welfare** or publicly funded childcare.)
* ***Individualistic gender regime*** – policies are based on the belief that **husbands and wives should be treated the same.**
(In **Sweden**, policies treat husbands and wives as **equally responsible**.)
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# age
Childhood as a **social construct**
1. ***Cross-cultural differences in childhood*** = it depends on its **social characteritistics**- children in **simpler, non traditional societies** are generally **treated differently** from their **modern western counterparts**
1. ***historical differences in childhoo***d:
* **aires** found **little differentiation between children and adults** ***until the industrial era*** - rise of **compulsory schooling and control over labour laws**
* E.g. **children take responsibility at an early age**. **Aires** study of childhood in rural ***Bolivia*** found that o**nce child was 5 year**s, they are **expected** to **take work responsibilities in the home**.
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# ***Childhood as a social construct***
**differences** in childhood
| evaluation
***social class***
- child poverty action group, it **estimated** that **4.2 million children** in the uk are **living in poverty**
- 1.2 mil = **eligible for free school meals**
- **deprivation impacts on the health, education** means **decling life expectancy for children born in the most deprived areas**
***gende*r**
- **control over girls** is **stricter** than boys accoridng to **mcrobie** with more parents **worried about assul**t
- **gender socialisation** leads to differences in education achievements for boys and girls
***ethnic***
- rascism in school from peers imoact on the experience of young people
- **some chinese children have stricter control on their free time and increased focus on educational achievements** - prioritise educational attainment
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child-centredness
- term used to describe **the way family has become *centred*** on **the needs of *children* rather than the needs of adults**
reasons are due to:
- **safeguarding legitalsiation to protect** **the rights of children {the children act/cumpulsory education}**
- role of media {parental fears about children are heightend by the media through moral panic abot childhood = this fear is heighten by **children being born into the new millennium of digital generation with education**. this also leads children being passive recipients of marketing with companies using children's media tv, social meida etc}
- **role of capitalsm. = pester power**
evaluation:
- however factors such as gender, class and ethnicty all impact on childs staus in family = shows that the status of all children are not the same
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**The Children Act 1989** and its Sociological Significance
* is a comprehensive piece of legislation in the UK that fundamentally altered the landscape of child protection.
* **It prioritised the wellbeing and safety of children & their right to be heard within the familty**
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Reasons for **changes** in the positions of children
- The introduction of **compulsory schooling**: the easing of the school **leaving** children **age** has **extended** =
- **child protection** and welfare **legislation**: children act made t**he welfare of the child the fundamental principle.**
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The disappearance of childhood
**Postman** argues that childhood is disappearing as the trend towards **giving children the same rights as adults.**
this is because of:
* **a childs mental health** [e.g. **females** more **likely** to **show psychological distress than *males***]
* **sexualisation of children** - decrease of sexual intercoursce from **20** in the 1950 to **16** in 2001, **children** so ***adopt adult clothing leading to sexualisation of children***
* **palmer = toxic childhood syndrome**, she suggests that many children are now suffering from toxic childhood syndrome = wherby they have **access to media (exposed to things), poor diets and less time with parents (unaqeuate sociolaistaion)**. this led to i**ncrease in mental health conditions and anti-social behaviours** which leads to the above ^^
**evaluation**: childhood ***experience*** are **intersectional** (class, race and gender have an imoact e.g. girls have more strict rules, curfew, whilst boys are treated lieneitly)
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Organisation diveristy
**Families differ in their structure**, household type, and the division of labour within the household.
Women started to **reject the traditional role of housewives**, and they **fought** for a **more equal division** of domestic labour.
Women also became **more ready to get a divorce** if they were **unhappy** in their marriages and **either remarry or recouple** in cohabitation later on.
This **led to new family structures** like the **reconstituted** family, which refers to a family made up of 'step' relatives, dual workers family, symmetrical family
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Althussers view on the family
| use as analysis
- Althusser argued that the family acts as an** Ideological State Apparatus** which **serves** to **spread the dominant ideology**.
- This maintains **false consciousness and hegemony** as well as this severs to **maintain capitalism.**
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impacts on globalisation on famaily
- globalisation has led to an **increase in geographical mobility** across international boarders
- **changes in the way people live**,
- **changes inn employmen**t: d**ecline of manufacturing** industries in the uk due to globalisation has seen - **increase in dual earner families**
- **changes in family divesity** = increased lone parent families for some older members, extended family, chnages to gender roles.
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# radical - feminism
delphy and leonard
- **expoiltaion** of women in the family
- saw the exploitation of women in the family **not as a benefit to capitalism, but rather as a benefit to *men***
- the family is **patriarchal**
- **domestic labou**r deemed to be '**unproductive**', formed part of the **expectations of the women**.
- ***evaluation***: depites **recent changes** in division of labour, **women are doing more than male counterparts** ***Gershunny*** refers to this as **a form of '*lagged adapation***' (when **women** are **going** into **work faster than men are taking on household chores**, but they will **eventually be equal**.)
- dunne also believes that there is **greater equality in domestic labour in *lesbaian* couples**
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Extended families = theoretical
| Phillipson
- **Marxist = Phillipson**: the **old** are of **no use in capitalism** because they are **no longer productive**.
- He indicates that this **creates issues of poverty amongst many old people**, who **can no longer support themselves** ***financially*** and require one-on-one care.
- *Consequently*, **as the state** is **unwilling to support** them **the burden falls upon the family**
→ **Rise in extended families** are family **members take on responsibility to caring for elders**
- **Feminists** would **dislike** this they would say that extended families **strengthens the demand of the expressive role** - mothers are still **confined to the home,** *perform gender roles and stereotypes*
- **functionalist** would **prefer** this - **more people to provide adequate socialisation**
- **new rights**: would **like** this because they will be **less of dependency of the state**, reduces the safety net - l***ess money is being spent to the public***
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Beanpole family - theoretical
| Brannen
- **Brannen**: notes that **due** to **the rise in women's career aspirations**, they have **fewer children** and therefore **birth rates have dramatically decreased**.
- Due to **pressures in the workplace**, ***women are having less children, and spend much more time working than doing child care duties.***
- Therefore t**here is a rise in bean-pole families** —there is a **trend** towards the
'***sandwich generation***' being **responsible for the younger people in the family. to look after the older** - this places **extra pressure for children to provide as parents are working.** **Robbed of their innocence**
- **Older family generations** are increasingly in demand to **provide for the needs of grandchildren** and provide childcare when parents are at work.
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Evaluation on Beanpole family
- Functionalist would **dislike this**: women are ***not fulfilling the expressive duties/ maternal bond***
- this leads to **toxic childhood (*Palmer*)** = they are robbed of innocent
- **not applicable to all social classes**, **M/C** may have money **to afford a nann**y, or family to support
However doesn’t have to extended can be a neo-conventional families
**Feminist** would also like this as it **gives** them t**he opportunity to break glass ceiling**
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S.P Households
- 45% of households led by someone aged 65 or over were single-person households, more than twice the rate in younger age groups. Significantly, the number of single-person households headed by someone aged 65 and over has doubled since 1961. Due to women typically living longer than men, findings show that in 2013, there were 1.7 million widowed women aged 65 or over living alone in the UK. This was three times the number of widowers. Chambers refers to this trend as the 'feminisation of later life.
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Evaluation. Of single person households
Whilst ageing populations may attributes significantly to the growth of single-parent households, postmodernists would argue that society has shifted to become more individualistic, and that traditional role and structures have become disembod This has resulted in many people choosing to divorce their spouses and live alone.
- the expectation has been disembedded - they can choose their spouses or whether to live alone
- The structure before in society is fading. Beck / Giddens call this ‘Do it yourself biography’ a product of the individualisation thesis
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Increasing immigration and family life
| globalisation and migration
Increased migration **means more families are stretched** across national borders and **have family members living abroad**, which in turn reinforces **globalisation as more families maintain contacts through media and physical visits.**
**Immigrant families** to the UK have on average **higher birth rates** t*han non-immigrant families*. A **positive** effect of this is that it **reduces the dependency ratio**, however a claimed **negative consequenc**e is an **increased strain on public services, mainly schools.**
Part of globalisation is people displacement following conflict, which sometimes results in the breaking up of families, U.K. policy has focused (to an extent) on **taking in orphan refugee children, meaning more *‘global step/ foster families*’.**
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The feminisation of migration
| globalisation and migration
- In the **past** most migrants were **men**, however **today** the global migrants are **female**.
- This has been ***called the globalisation of the gender division of labour***
- **Female migrants** find that they are **fitted** i**nto patriarchal stereotypes** about **women's roles as carers**.
- ***Hochschild*** observe that **care work, domestic work (childcare, personal care)** in **western countrie**s like the **UK** which is **increasingly done by women from poor countries.**
This is the **result** of:
- **Expansion of service occupations**
(***traditionally employ women***) = an
increasing demand for female labour
- **Western women** have **joined** the **labour** force & are **less willing/able** to **perform domestic labour**
- This has **enabled the rise of symmetrical families** - joint conjugal (***Botts***)
- ***migrant Nannie’s*** **takes away the *burden of the expressive* role by mothers and allows the increase of the *new man***
- This **also leads** to the **increase of single person households** - ***migrant Nannie’s tends to leave their family behind*** - they ***migrate for employment- to give back money home***
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# Eade/Eriksen
Migrant & Transnational identities
| globalisation and migration
- **We all have multiple sources of identity** (family, friends, ethnicity etc.)
- E.g. **migrants** may develop h**ybrid identities** made up of two or more different sources.
- ***Eade*** - s*econd generation Bangladeshi* in b ritian **saw themselves as Muslim first, then Bengali, then British.**
- These families will be **unable to conform to Britain values**
- transnational identities: ***Eriksen*** **globalisation** has created more **diverse migration** patterns, with **back-and-forth movements** of people **through networks** **rather than p*ermanent settlement* in another country**.
- As a result, **migrants** are *less likely* to see themselves **as belonging to one culture/country**.
- Instead they may **develop transnational identities.**
- **migrant family causes family diversity**
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Globalisation families
| globalisation and migration
**Cultural diversity** has ***impacted*** family life:
- can result in **growing** numbers of **couples coming from different cultural backgrounds**, and more '***hybrid families***' creating **new family relationships** and ***values* derived from a *merging* of the *two* cultures.**
- love and other forms of relationships are **conducted between people living in different countries and continents**.
- **links to *feminisation* of migration**. - ***distant love - typically- lone parent families***
- globalisation has led to a **growing trade in surrogate motherhood**, (***Chamber***'s calls this the '***purchase of intimacy***'), and ***the purchase of family personal care***, such as **home help nannies** from ***poorer*** countries across the world, f**or those who can afford it.**
- from a **Marxist** perspective this ***expands exploitation***
