Theories & methods Flashcards
Weber
action theories
- action theories see society as constructed by members’ interactions
- Weber’s social action theory believes social behaviour should be understood through the levels of meaning.
- Symbolic interactionism sees us as creating meanings through interactions in which we take the role of the other.
social action theory
WEBER
WEBER
- He saw behaviour in terms of the meaning people attach to actions. = Interpretivist, so interested in qualitative methods
- Verstehen - the aim to understanding the meaning of motives and value.
“We must exercise ‘verstehen’”
- supports Gouldner - committed sociology = to make societal improvements
Weber identified four types of action associated with human behaviour:
2 of them is…
Value rational action - importance of the purpose of the action = links to religion: Calvinism =‘salvation panic’ = w/c needs to work hard for society to gain profit. We do things in a conscious way
Affectual action - action which expresses emotion, such as individuals state of minds = links to religion: New Christian Right movement - adopted absurd beliefs,
Evaluation of weber social action theory
- SCHUTZ argues that this view is too individualistic and does not explain shared nature of meaning
- influence of society upon individual actions - peers, family etc can influence behaviour.
- cannot exercise verstehen because we cant be that person = cant truly understand their motives
Links to ethical issues of deception, imposition problem = leading questions.
social action theories: PHENOMENOLOGY
Schutz - the study of phenomena
- Typifications - shared world of meaning:
- the meaning of an action depends on the context
E.G. Raising hand in class vs raising hand at an auction. - society is just the creation of our mind: based upon typifications of objects, activities and ideas that we experience in our lifeworld’s.
- The meaning we give to our actions + the association we give to our senses varies depending on the context - cultural dialogue differs
- if we do things in ways we dont expect - it goes against what we value. Differs from structural theory (mirco theory)
- Without typifications, social order would not be possible
natural attitude- our experiences lead us to believe the world is a natural thing based on shared meaning and experience = in summary we assume we have a fixed social system, however we undermine the interactions within that process.
social action theories: PHENOMENOLOGY
Berger & Luckmann
- he agrees with SCHUTZ to focus on shared common sense knowlegde, however they rejct the view that society is merely inter-subjective reality(different opinions).
- although reality is socially constructed, once it has been constructed it takes a life of its own and becomes an external reality. = that we project in insitutions such as laws, schools
- takes a voluntaritic stance (concerned with free will)
- E.G. Religious ideas may start of in peoples mind but they become embodied in powerful societies structures such as churches which constrain us = becomes a collective consciousness.
- X: However, religion is a collective force.
Ethmethodolgy -social action theory
GARFIKEL - how society/meanings are created?
Society is a social construction : social order is an illusion
Ethnomethodology is therefore different to interactionism because it does not focus on the effect of meanings, but instead how meanings were created in the first place.
Garfinkel believes in indexicality- nothing has a fixed meaning, it depends on the social context.
This supports atkinsons study of sudden death being classed as suicide.
He said that suicide is just a social construction of meaning.
E.G. a corpse is lifeless body until a meaning is attached = killed, murdered, natural death
This theory is a direct criticism of structural theories (marxist, functionalist,feminist) that advocates that we are agents of unconsciously abiding to normas and values
However, abiding by these rules is not inevitable = eventhough there is social order, people can choose to defy it. -links to marxism, but people can choose not to attain materialistic items.
Evaluation of ethomodeolgy
- Ethnomethodologist findings are trival (pointless)
- There findings are not grounded enough/ evidence based. Not science based (unfalsiable - Popper)
- Their findings also doesnt solve anything like structural theorist does
G.H. Mead
Symbolic interactionism
- We create the social world through our actions and interactions and give meaning through language and symbols.
- society is thought to be socially constructed through human interpretations.
- it explains social order and change
- this is a strength as they see individuals just as important as society
Criticsm of symbolic interactions
- considered as supplemental (not a full theory = doesnt explains our behaviour) = focuses on face to face interactions and ignore the wider structures such as class inequality
- not all actions are meaningful, Weber’s category of traditional action/ value-action theory, much is performed uncousicously and may have little meaning for actors
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
Labelling theory(Becker) / looking glass theory (cooley)
The two concepts that underpin this theory are:
Labelling Theory focuses on how the definitions (meanings) people impose on situations or on other people can have real consequence. If we attach a label to something, it will affect the way we act and has real-life consequences.
- For example, parents, teachers and the police generally have more power to make labels stick and make these labels have consequences compared to working class youths.
The looking glass self - self-concept comes from the ability to take the role of the other. This allows us to see ourselves as others see us. This leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy: we become as others see us. Our label becomes part of our self-concept (Cooley).
e.g. crime and the interactions with the police and behaviour that could change
FUNCTIONALISM
Parsons organic anaolgy
Parsons identifies the similarities between society and a biological body:
SYSTEM
Organisms and societies are both self-regulating system of interrelated parts that fit together these are institutions (education system, government etc).
SYSTEM NEEDS
Organisms have needs (eg. nutrition), if these needs are not met, the organism will die. Functionalists see the social system as having basic needs (Eg. adequate socialisation) to maintain social order and survive.
FUNCTIONS
The function for any system is based on the contribution it makes to meeting the system needs, which ensures its survival.
FUNCTIONALSIM
PARSONS value consensus
- we all share a value consensus through the adoption of norms and value (primary socialisation) from insistutions like our families.
- this is also achieved through shared culture & beliefs shared by members of society.
- social order is only possible if we conform to such norms and values
Parsons the system needs
AGIL- How the organic analogy is supprted
Parsons outlines the AGIL schema, consisting of four basic societal needs:
- Adaptation
- Integration: Uniting various societal components to pursue common objectives, facilitated by institutions like religion, education, and media.= these are instruemntal needs according to parson
- Goal Attainment: Creating and sharing resources to reach societal goals is usually done by government bodies like Parliament. They make plans, like providing Free School Meals, to tackle social problems. Parsons calls these basic needs “instrumental.”
- latency:
EVALUATING FUNCTIONALISM THEORY
- EXTERNAL CRITISM MARXIST: Creates more inequality within society and the workforce because if people don’t have the skills/qualification needed for work, they are therefore restricted to low paid work = could lead to negative labelling/ delinquent ‘subculture’
- Internal crique: MERTON: universal functioanlism- Parson assumes that everything in society has a positive process that never fails ? How does it fail in family/ education? = ignores the dysfunctional side
Is Functionalism still relevant today?
deemed useful for understanding society on the grounds that it successfully demonstrates that social institutions are and dependent on one another
The idea that society is interdependent.
functionalists
Consensus theories
- Society is basically harmonious
- Most people share basic beliefs = agreement (consensus)
- These ‘shared values’ create ‘social order’
- Our behaviour is ‘determined’ (shaped) by the culture of society – which we learn through ‘socialisation’
- Behaviour is regular/patterned and fairly predictable.
Conflict theories
- This is a less optimistic approach.
- It views society as not being based on harmony but ‘conflict’.
- There is great inequality in society and certain groups benefit at the expense of others.
- The institutions of society mainly serve this powerful minority.
Marxism theory
- Marxism is a structural conflict theory that rejects capitalism.
- In capitalism, the** bourgeoisie exploit the labour of the proletariat.**
- They maintain their position through control of the repressive state apparatus(althusser) and through hegemony = (gramsci)
MARXIST
The superstructure & the base
- the bourgeoise control/maintains the base (society’s infrastructure) and therefore controls the superstructure of society
- The superstructure is the institutions and structures in society, such as (government, religion, education, and family). = This maintains and legitimises the base E.G. In family - Inheritance of property, ideological functions. RELIGION: calvinism, ‘spiritual gin’. EDUCATION through the hidem curriculum.
- the base = holds society together through the expolitation.
Economic determinism
critices base/superstructure relationship
- they disregard that economic factors are the sole cause of everything in society, nincluding social change
- they argue that this fails to recongnise that humans have free will and can bring about change through their conscious actions
Traditional Marxism: HISTORICAL MATERIALISM
- Materialism is the nucleus to human survival: it provides individuals with food, clothing and shelter.
- Each period of history, therefore, has its own unique set of characteristics.
- Such characteristics in a modern society can be identified as a division of labour that occurs between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, who are the forces and relations of production make up society’s infrastructure.
- Links to base/superstruture
evolution of modern capitalsm
TRADITIONAL MARXSIM: CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS
Marx argues because of the exploitative nature of capitalism, the proletariat develop their own economic and political interests in opposition this will in fluctuate a dictatorship of the proletariat, whereby they become aware of the need to overthrow capitalism.
In order to maintain social order, despite this ongoing conflict because the proletariat is in a state of false class consciousness - they do not realise they are being exploited by the ruling class.
Traditional marxism - ideology
Ideology
- The dominant ideas in society are the ideas of the economically dominant class.
- the inisitutions that produce and spread ideas, such as religion, education and the media, all serve the dominant class by producing ideologies - set of beliefs that legitimises the existing social order
- ideolgies foster a false class concsciousness in the subordinate classes and helps to sustain class inequality.
- e.g. myth of meritocracy or commodity fetishism
Humanistic Marxism
- links to interpretivist sociology
- humans have free will
GRAMSCI HUMANIST MARXISM
- Gramsci rejected economic determinism as an explanation of social change
- This can be seen in Gramsci’s concept of hegemony. Gramsci saw the ruling class maintaining its power over society in two ways:
- Coercion – it uses the police, prison and courts to force other classes to accept its rule
- Consent (hegemony) – it uses ideas and values to persuade the subordinate classes that its rule is legitimate
Gramsci - neo-marxists
- The proletariat have dual consciousness: The working class has two ways of thinking. They’re not just influenced by the ideas of the wealthy, but also by their own living conditions = they are aware of their exploitation and are capable through the dominant ideology.
- he states that as long as society accepts ruling class hegemony there will not be a revolution. = we are currently accepting the hegemony through the superstructure.
- An example that challenges the way society function is through awareness of material conditions = Marcus Rashford FSM petition
- the working classes can only win this battle for ideas by producing their own ‘organic intellectuals’ – by forming a body of workers who are class conscious and are able to project a credible, alternative vision of what society would look like under communism.
Traditional
structural Marxism
athusser
- Marxism is a science that discovers laws that govern capitalism
- links to positivist sociology
Marxism sees capitalism governed by laws, individuals as passive, and society shaped by ideological and economic forces.
critic of Althusser structuralist Marxism
- places too much emphasis on social structure
- too deterministic
Althusser divides the state into two apparatuses:
**The repressive state apparatuses **= RSA: these are institutions that will coerce the working class into complying with the will of the bourgeoises.
The ideological state apparatus (ISA) = insitutions that ideologically manipulate the working class into accepting capitalism as legitimate.
internal criticism
(where a theory criticise the other within the same theory)
e.g. a functionalist vs a functionalist
- over emphasises the role of ideas and under-emphasises the rule of economic factors. E.G. workers may wish to overthrow capitalism but will be reluctant to do so due to fear of employment.
ways marxism is still relevant
- Exploitation still lies at the heart of the Capitalist system if you look at the practices of many Transnational Corporations.
- people sre more individualised and many people are still under ideological control – but we don’t realise it.
- Work is still Alienating for many people.
- Economic crises are still inherent to the capitalist system and that in recent years these crises have become more severe and more frequent.e.g. cost of lving