Theories & methods

Question 1

Weber

action theories

Answer 1

• action theories see society as constructed by members’ interactions
• Weber’s social action theory believes social behaviour should be understood through the levels of meaning.
• Symbolic interactionism sees us as creating meanings through interactions in which we take the role of the other.

Question 2

social action theory

WEBER

Answer 2

WEBER
- He saw behaviour in terms of the meaning people attach to actions. = Interpretivist, so interested in qualitative methods
- Verstehen - the aim to understanding the meaning of motives and value.
“We must exercise ‘verstehen’”
- supports Gouldner - committed sociology = to make societal improvements

Weber identified four types of action associated with human behaviour:
2 of them is…

Value rational action - importance of the purpose of the action = links to religion: Calvinism =‘salvation panic’ = w/c needs to work hard for society to gain profit. We do things in a conscious way
Affectual action - action which expresses emotion, such as individuals state of minds = links to religion: New Christian Right movement - adopted absurd beliefs,

Question 3

Evaluation of weber social action theory

Answer 3

• SCHUTZ argues that this view is too individualistic and does not explain shared nature of meaning
• influence of society upon individual actions - peers, family etc can influence behaviour.
• cannot exercise verstehen because we cant be that person = cant truly understand their motives
  Links to ethical issues of deception, imposition problem = leading questions.

Question 4

social action theories: PHENOMENOLOGY

Schutz - the study of phenomena

Answer 4

• Typifications - shared world of meaning:
• the meaning of an action depends on the context
  E.G. Raising hand in class vs raising hand at an auction.
• society is just the creation of our mind: based upon typifications of objects, activities and ideas that we experience in our lifeworld’s.
• The meaning we give to our actions + the association we give to our senses varies depending on the context - cultural dialogue differs
• if we do things in ways we dont expect - it goes against what we value. Differs from structural theory (mirco theory)
• Without typifications, social order would not be possible

natural attitude- our experiences lead us to believe the world is a natural thing based on shared meaning and experience = in summary we assume we have a fixed social system, however we undermine the interactions within that process.

Question 5

social action theories: PHENOMENOLOGY

Berger & Luckmann

Answer 5

• he agrees with SCHUTZ to focus on shared common sense knowlegde, however they rejct the view that society is merely inter-subjective reality(different opinions).
• although reality is socially constructed, once it has been constructed it takes a life of its own and becomes an external reality. = that we project in insitutions such as laws, schools
• takes a voluntaritic stance (concerned with free will)
• E.G. Religious ideas may start of in peoples mind but they become embodied in powerful societies structures such as churches which constrain us = becomes a collective consciousness.
• X: However, religion is a collective force.

Question 6

Ethmethodolgy -social action theory

GARFIKEL - how society/meanings are created?

Answer 6

Society is a social construction : social order is an illusion

Ethnomethodology is therefore different to interactionism because it does not focus on the effect of meanings, but instead how meanings were created in the first place.

Garfinkel believes in indexicality- nothing has a fixed meaning, it depends on the social context.

This supports atkinsons study of sudden death being classed as suicide.

He said that suicide is just a social construction of meaning.
E.G. a corpse is lifeless body until a meaning is attached = killed, murdered, natural death

This theory is a direct criticism of structural theories (marxist, functionalist,feminist) that advocates that we are agents of unconsciously abiding to normas and values

However, abiding by these rules is not inevitable = eventhough there is social order, people can choose to defy it. -links to marxism, but people can choose not to attain materialistic items.

Question 7

Evaluation of ethomodeolgy

Answer 7

• Ethnomethodologist findings are trival (pointless)
• There findings are not grounded enough/ evidence based. Not science based (unfalsiable - Popper)
• Their findings also doesnt solve anything like structural theorist does

Question 8

G.H. Mead

Symbolic interactionism

Answer 8

• We create the social world through our actions and interactions and give meaning through language and symbols.
• society is thought to be socially constructed through human interpretations.
• it explains social order and change
• this is a strength as they see individuals just as important as society

Question 9

Criticsm of symbolic interactions

Answer 9

• considered as supplemental (not a full theory = doesnt explains our behaviour) = focuses on face to face interactions and ignore the wider structures such as class inequality
• not all actions are meaningful,Weber’s category of traditional action/ value-action theory, much is performed uncousicously and may have little meaning for actors

Question 10

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

Labelling theory(Becker) / looking glass theory (cooley)

Answer 10

The two concepts that underpin this theory are:

Labelling Theory focuses on how the definitions (meanings) people impose on situations or on other people can have real consequence. If we attach a label to something, it will affect the way we act and has real-life consequences.
- For example, parents, teachers and the police generally have more power to make labels stick and make these labels have consequences compared to working class youths.
​
The looking glass self - self-concept comes from the ability to take the role of the other. This allows us to see ourselves as others see us. This leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy: we become as others see us. Our label becomes part of our self-concept (Cooley).

e.g. crime and the interactions with the police and behaviour that could change

Question 11

FUNCTIONALISM

Parsons organic anaolgy

Answer 11

Parsons identifies the similarities between society and a biological organism:

SYSTEM
Organisms and societies are both self-regulating system of interrelated parts that fit together in fixed ways. In the body, these are cells whereas in society these are institutions (education system, government etc).
​
SYSTEM NEEDS
Organisms have needs (eg. nutrition), if these needs are not met, the organism will die. Functionalists see the social system as having basic needs (Eg. adequate socialisation) to maintain social order and survive.

FUNCTIONS
The function for any system is based on the contribution it makes to meeting the system needs, which ensures its survival.

Question 12

FUNCTIONALSIM

PARSONS value consensus

Answer 12

• we all share a value consensus through the adoption of norms and value (primary socialisation) from insistutions like our families.
• this is also achieved through shared culture & beliefs shared by members of society.
• social order is only possible if we conform to such norms and values

Question 13

Parsons the system needs

AGIL- How the organic analogy is supprted

Answer 13

Parsons outlines the AGIL schema, consisting of four basic societal needs:

1. Adaptation
2. Integration: Uniting various societal components to pursue common objectives, facilitated by institutions like religion, education, and media.= these are instruemntal needs according to parson
3. Goal Attainment: Establishing and allocating resources to achieve societal goals, typically undertaken by governmental bodies such as Parliament, which implement policies to address social issues like Free School Meals (FSM).* = these are instruemntal needs according to parson
4. latency:

Question 14

EVALUATING FUNCTIONALISM THEORY

Answer 14

• EXTERNAL CRITISM MARXIST: Creates more inequality within society and the workforce because if people don’t have the skills/qualification needed for work, they are therefore restricted to low paid work = could lead to negative labelling/ delinquent ‘subculture’
• Internal crique: MERTON: universal functioanlism- Parson assumes that everything in society has a positive process that never fails ? How does it fail in family/ education? = ignores the dysfunctional side

Question 15

Is Functionalism still relevant today?

Answer 15

deemed useful for understanding society on the grounds that it successfully demonstrates that social institutions are and dependent on one another

The idea that society is interdependent by governments who inject money into education or welfare in order to achieve a desired end.

Question 16

functionalists

Consensus theories

Answer 16

• Society is basically harmonious
• Most people share basic beliefs = agreement (consensus)
• These ‘shared values’ create ‘social order’
• Our behaviour is ‘determined’ (shaped) by the culture of society – which we learn through ‘socialisation’
• Behaviour is regular/patterned and fairly predictable.

Question 17

Conflict theories

Answer 17

• This is a less optimistic approach.
• It views society as not being based on harmony but ‘conflict’.
• There is great inequality in society and certain groups benefit at the expense of others.
• The institutions of society mainly serve this powerful minority.

Question 18

Marxism theory

Answer 18

• Marxism is a structural conflict theory that rejects capitalism.
• In capitalism, the bourgeoisie exploit the labour of the proletariat.
• They maintain their position through control of the repressive state apparatus(althusser) and through hegemony = (gramsci)

Question 19

MARXIST

The superstructure & the base

Answer 19

• the bourgeoise control/maintains the base (society’s infrastructure) and therefore controls the superstructure of society
• The superstructure is the institutions and structures in society, such as (government, religion, education, and family). = This maintains and legitimises the base E.G. In family - Inheritance of property, ideological functions. RELIGION: calvinism, ‘spiritual gin’. EDUCATION through the hidem curriculum.
• the base = holds society together through the expolitation.
• refers to the materials and resources, that generate the goods society needs. this shapes the superstructure.

Question 20

Economic determinism

critices base/superstructure relationship

Answer 20

• they disregard that economic factors are the sole cause of everything in society, nincluding social change
• they argue that this fails to recongnise that humans have free will and can bring about change through their conscious actions

Question 21

Traditional Marxism: HISTORICAL MATERIALISM

Answer 21

• Materialism is the nucleus to human survival: it provides individuals with food, clothing and shelter.
  ​
• Each period of history, therefore, has its own unique set of characteristics.
  ​
• Such characteristics in a modern society can be identified as a division of labour that occurs between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, who are the forces and relations of production make up society’s infrastructure.
• Links to base/superstruture

evolution of modern capitalsm

Question 22

TRADITIONAL MARXSIM: CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS

Answer 22

Marx argues because of the exploitative nature of capitalism, the proletariat develop their own economic and political interests in opposition this will in fluctuate a dictatorship of the proletariat, whereby they become aware of the need to overthrow capitalism.

In order to maintain social order, despite this ongoing conflict because the proletariat is in a state of false class consciousness - they do not realise they are being exploited by the ruling class.

Question 23

Traditional marxism - ideology

Ideology

Answer 23

• The dominant ideas in society are the ideas of the economically dominant class.
• the inisitutions that produce and spread ideas, such as religion, education and the media, all serve the dominant class by producing ideologies - set of beliefs that legitimises the existing social order
• ideolgies foster a false class concsciousness in the subordinate classes and helps to sustain class inequality.
• e.g. myth of meritocracy or commodity fetishism

Question 24

Humanistic Marxism

Answer 24

• links to interpretivist sociology
• humans have free will

GRAMSCI HUMANIST MARXISM
- Gramsci rejected economic determinism as an explanation of social change
- This can be seen in Gramsci’s concept of hegemony. Gramsci saw the ruling class maintaining its power over society in two ways:
- Coercion – it uses the police, prison and courts to force other classes to accept its rule
- Consent (hegemony) – it uses ideas and values to persuade the subordinate classes that its rule is legitimate

Question 25

Gramsci - neo-marxists

Answer 25

• The proletariat have dual consciousness: The working class has two ways of thinking. They’re not just influenced by the ideas of the wealthy, but also by their own living conditions = they are aware of their exploitation and are capable through the dominant ideology.
• he states that as long as society accepts ruling class hegemony there will not be a revolution. = we are currently accepting the hegemony through the superstructure.
• An example that challenges the way society function is through awareness of material conditions = Marcus Rashford FSM petition
• the working classes can only win this battle for ideas by producing their own ‘organic intellectuals’ – by forming a body of workers who are class conscious and are able to project a credible, alternative vision of what society would look like under communism.

Question 26

Traditional

structural Marxism

athusser

Answer 26

• Marxism is a science that discovers laws that govern capitalism
• links to positivist sociology
• Determinism: individuals are passive and manipulated by forces beyond their control.

ALTHUSSER STRUCTURALIST MARXISM
- he rejected the base-superstructure model and believes capitalist society has three levels:
- 2 of them being.

ON AN IDEOLOGICAL LEVEL
Known as the ideological state apparatus, reinforced by the media, education and religion.

ON AN ECONOMIC LEVEL
Through the economy and production of good

Question 27

critic of Althusser structuralist Marxism

Answer 27

• places too much emphasis on social structure
• too deterministic

Question 28

Althusser divides the state into two apparatuses:

Answer 28

**The repressive state apparatuses **= RSA: these are institutions that will coerce the working class into complying with the will of the bourgeoises.

The ideological state apparatus (ISA) = insitutions that ideologically manipulate the working class into accepting capitalism as legitimate.

Question 29

internal criticism

(where a theory criticise the other within the same theory)

e.g. a functionalist vs a functionalist

Answer 29

• over emphasises the role of ideas and under-emphasises the rule of economic factors. E.G. workers may wish to overthrow capitalism but will be reluctant to do so due to fear of employment.

Question 30

ways marxism is still relevant

Answer 30

• Exploitation still lies at the heart of the Capitalist system if you look at the practices of many Transnational Corporations.
• people sre more individualised and many people are still under ideological control – but we don’t realise it.
• Work is still Alienating for many people.
  Economic crises are still inherent to the capitalist system and that in recent years these crises have become more severe and more frequent.

Question 31

feminism/THE WAVES

Answer 31

origins
in ‘A vindication of the rights of women’ (1742) = right to vote

• see society as patriarchal
• both a theory of political movements and women subordination

Question 32

LIBERAL FEMINISM - OAKLEY

Answer 32

• Women can achieve gender equality through reform: anti discrimination laws and policies.
  SEX & GENDER
  Oakley distinguishes between sex and gender:
• Sex- biological .
• Gender- socially constructed
• While sex is seen as fixed, gender differences varies between cultures over time.
• A role of women may be considered as proper for one culture but many be looked down from another e.g. a full-time housewife
• liberal feminist challenge the view of functionalist divison and suggest that women are equally as capable of performing both roles

Question 33

Evaluation of liberal feminist

Answer 33

• Marxist feminist and liberal feminist says that liberal feminist fail to recongnise the undrlying cause og womens subordiation and that it is naive to believe that chnages in law/attitutudes is enough to bring equality. They believe to overcome this, there needs to be a far-reaching, revonlutionary change.

Question 34

RADICAL FEMINISM - FIRESTONE

Answer 34

PATRIARCHY

The origins of women’s patriarchy lie in women’s biological capacity and care for infants, since performing this role makes them dependent on males.

Patriarchy is the primary and most fundamental part of all inequality and conflict.
- Men are the women’s main enemy.
- All men oppress women.
- Oppression is direct and personal
​

‘THE PERSONAL IS THE POLITICAL’ = sexual politics

• Radical feminists believe all relationships involve power, men dominate women
• Radical feminists focus on the way in which patriarchal power is exercised through personal relationships, often through physical or sexual violence.
• Brownmiller argues the fear of rape is a powerful deterrent against women going out alone at night.

ACHIEVING WOMEN’S LIBERATION

Separatism - living apart from men and creating a new culture of female independence, free from patriarchy.

Political lesbianism - heterosexual relationships are ‘sleeping with the enemy’ and therefore lesbianism is the only non-oppressive form of sexuality.
​

Question 35

evaluation of radical feminism

Answer 35

• radical feminists offer no explanation of why female subordination takes different forms in different societies. it assumes all women are in the same position and ignores factors like class, gender, age between women.
• ## while drawing attention to male violence againsts women, radical feminis neglects women’s violence against men and violence within lesbian couplses

Question 36

MARXIST FEMINISM - BARRETT

Answer 36

Marxist feminists disagree with radical feminists on the grounds that:
​
Capitalism is the main cause of women’s oppression (not patriarchy).
Capitalism is the main winner from female oppression (not men).

They believe that women:
​
Are provide cheap exploitable labour.
Are a reserve army of labour.
Reproduce the labour force.
Absorb anger.

IDEOLOGY OF FAMILISM

Barrett believes that it is because of our ideology in society from birth that ‘brainwashes’ women to believe that the sexual division of labour and their position is natural and normal. The nuclear family is portrayed as the only place where women can attain fulfilment.
​

ACHIEVING WOMEN’S LIBERATION

Overthrow capitalism
Overthrow the ideology of familism that underpins the nuclear family and its unequal division of labour

Question 37

evaluation of marxist feminsm

Answer 37

• Unpaid domestic labour may benefit capitalsim, as Marxists feminist suggest but this doesnt explain why it is women and not men. HARTMANN argues that this is because maricism is ‘sex-blind’

Question 38

A.K.A poststructualist feminist

DIFFERENCE FEMINISM - BUTLER

Answer 38

Difference feminists do not see women as a single homogeneous groups - differences of class, ethnicity, sexuality etc. all lead to different experiences of patriarchy. Hence, they emphasise diversity.
​
Difference feminists argue previous feminist theory claim ‘false universality’: it claims to apply to all women, but in reality, it is only about the experiences of white, western, heterosexual, middle-class women
​

ESSENTIALISM
​
Difference feminists criticise radical, liberal and Marxist feminists for being essentialists, whereby they see women as essentially the same and therefore fail to recognise diversity.

Question 39

criticism of difference feminist

Answer 39

While this theory seem to offer a theorectical theory for recognising the diversity of women’s xeperiences, it has some weakness
- Wably argues that women are all faced with patriachy, e.g. women face a greater risk of low pay, domstic violnce and sexual assult
- By dividing feminism/seperating difference, this has an effect on weakening feminism as a movement for change

Question 40

sociology as a science

Answer 40

• scientfic knowlgede is seen as superior to the other forms of knowldge because of its methods (lab experiements)

Question 41

postivism = sociology is a science.

COMTE

Answer 41

comte one of the founding fathers of sociology.

sociology should be studied in the same way as the natural sciences.
With science, it explain how things relate to each other, using laws. It is possible to discover the causual aws that control and shape the behaviour of people in society. through scientific and value-free methods. They favour quantitative methods and data, supporting the view that sociology is a science
Therefore, the main task of Sociology is to discover general laws of social development through:

Laws of co-existence - looking at the relationship between parts of society
Laws of succession - laws that govern social change

with the natural world, social behaviour is governed by underlying causal laws and is therefore predictable- aims to uncover ‘laws of society’

Can use Durkheim to support him

X: However, we shouldn’t use scientific methods, we should focus on qualitative methods = high in reliability. Can discuss Douglas findings of the meaning of Suicide.

Question 42

sociololgy as a science

DURKHIEM

Answer 42

• He chose to stufy sucicde to show that sociology was a science with its own distinct subject matter
• he believed sociology is a science because we can study social facts as things to observe and measure (eg. suicide rate)
• He found that the rate of suicide was inversely proportional to the level of social integration (in that those with lower levels of social integration are more likely to commit suicide)
• using official statistics he analysed the patterns of suicide rates, such as higher rates among Protestants compared to Catholics = due to the varying levels of social integration
• he concluded that sociology has its wsown subject matter - socisl facts and rthese could be studied scientifically.

Question 43

interpretivism = sociology is not a science

weber

Answer 43

• one of the founding fathers of sociology,
• Uses interpretivism to study sociology from a subjective (opinions) perspective.
• This draws on the ideas of verstehen which means sociology requires a subjective understanding which relates to opinions. - empathetic understanding plays a crucial role in understanding human action and social change. According to him, before discovering the cause of action, one needs to figure out its meaning.
• Interpretivists argue that societies are socially constructed and shared by social groups.
  However, science is strongly objective and could not be considered a science.
• Goulner committed sociology support this his argument

X: can use EARLY POSITIVISTS Durkheim to evaluate SHOULD FOCUS ON BETTERING SOCIAL LIFE FOR ALL, using committed sociology is flawed and we need to ensure our values don’t influence the value of our findings - loose credibility

Question 44

sociology is not a science

POPPER

Answer 44

For sociology to be a science it must undergo a process of falsification.
- the idea that a statement can be falsified by evidence- to prove it wrong.
- However, sociology cannot be a science because it cannot undergo falsification, due to how many sociological ideas are too abstract to be tested.
- e.g. Marxism states that there will be a revolution to overthrow capitalism but this revolution has not occurred due to false class consciousness = therefore Marxism cannot be falsified as if this was to still happen then it would still correct

Question 45

KUHN = sitting on the fence (in between ) on whether socio shouls be a science

Answer 45

• argues that scientific subject matter passes through paradigmatic shifts similar to ideologies in sociological terms, this involve fundamental changes in basic concepts within a scientific discipline.
• These shifts lead to the emergence of unified perspectives that support scientific claims. There are typically three stages in this process:
• Pre-science - a period of discovery where there was no central paradigm.
• Normal science - scientists used an established paradigm to support their theory.
• Revolutionary science - paradigms are challenged.
• Kuhn argues sociology will never pass the period of pre-science because sociology does not have a ‘‘dominat perspectives and there is lots of competing theories” = this suggest that sociology is pre-paradigmatic as theres is no aggreement.
• this differs from natural sciences as its credible (factual)

X: can use postmodernist to evaluates = as society developed in age science has lost its objectivity - topic of choice imposes values

Question 46

The realist approach to science

critices KUHN & POPPER

Answer 46

• Realists emphasise similarities between social and natural sciences.
• Keat and Urry claim that science is not limited to studying observable phenomena.
• Natural sciences, for example, deal with unobservable ideas (such as subatomic particles) similarly to the way sociology deals with studying society and human actions - also unobservable phenomena. (false class consciousness)

Question 47

postivist vs intepretivism

value laden socio

Answer 47

• Positivists advocate for improving society through objective scientific knowledge, detached from researchers’ values.
• Myrdal and Gouldber suggest that while sociologists should identify their values, they can also take sides, supporting the interests of specific groups.
• Interpretivists argue that sociology cannot be value-free due to the inherent subjectivity of research

The sociologist’s values are influenced by - cannot be value free:
- Choice of research topic
- Choice of method

Question 48

objectivity and values in sociology

different perspectives

Answer 48

• Positivists believe society could be improved through objective scientific knowledge, free from values of the researcher.
• Interpretivists argue it is impossible for sociology to be value-free due to how research is subjective and influenced by values in all aspects.

Question 49

Early positivists

objectivity & values

Answer 49

• Comte and Durkheim saw socioloy as a science that aims to uncover social laws
• Once these laws were uncovered sociologists would be able to shape society and solve social problems leading to a better life for all.

Question 50

Weber & stages of research process

objectivity and values

Answer 50

• Marx and Comte believed that science could tell us what values should be = however, Weber distinguishes between facts and value judgments.

1. Values guide research: Researchers choose areas of study based on their values, e.g., feminists focusing on gender equality leading to studies on women’s oppression.

Areas where sociology can be value free:
2. Data collection and hypothesis testing: Objectivity is crucial in collecting facts; hypotheses should stand or fall solely on observed facts without bias in data collection.

Question 51

3. modern positivists

objectivity/values in socio

Answer 51

• early positivist were committed to shaping society through their scientifc study of the world.
• Mordern sociology is different as they believe that we should be scientific but that our own values are objective = must be neutral as possible

Question 52

Commited sociology

objectivity&values

value laden = something being influenced

Answer 52

• This is the idea that sciology should not be value free but should be committed to specific values and beliefs. E.G. Feminist and marxist sociologist are intrested in supporting the most disadvantaged in society usually take this approach = unsilencing the voice of the oppressed.
• LIBERAL VIEW (Becker): Sociologists should empathise with the oppressed, such as understanding how police disproportionately label working-class individuals as inherently more criminal = necessitating subjectivity.
• In opposition to value freedom, some argue that true neutrality is impossible, as research will always be influenced by underlying values, as seen in feminist sociology, where research is inherently value-laden.

Question 53

The sociologist’s values are influenced by:

sociology as a science: factors impacting upon objectivity

Answer 53

• Funding of research: that research is dictated by whoever is funding it. - may question the integrity and objectivity of sociology ability to be scientific
• comte argues that we should employ scientific methods when conduction reserarch as it helps us claim scientific certanity - for a better society
• Personal beleifs & intrests: Gouldner (1968) draws attention to the fact all researchers have their own intrests, opinion, biases and preferences & as such can affect what is meant to be studied.
• links to social policy

Question 54

Globalisation, Modernity & Postmodernity

summary

Answer 54

• Postmodernists argue that these changes indicate the arrival of a postmodern society, which leaves society as unstable, fragmented and media-saturated.
• They reject meta-narratives (a sub narrative) such as Marxism because there is no objective criteria to prove whether a theory is true.
• However, Giddens believe such changes are the result of a late-modern society, not a postmodern society.

Question 55

Mordern society

evidence of a modern society

Answer 55

Characteristics:
* capitalism, =private owneeship
* scientific thinking and technology
* meritorcacy is also evidence as tradition and abscribed status becomes less important.
* However, structural inequalities such as class remain important in shaping people’s identity and restricting choice.
* indiviualsim: we experience personal freedom and define our own identity.

Question 56

Globalisation:

Answer 56

(the increasing interconnectedness of societies)

This is occurring because:

• Economic changes - global networks encourage economic activity. e.g. TNC’s
• New technologies - thowever also created risk such as globalisation
• Changes in culture and identity - we live in a global culture created by the media that has been westernised - makes it harder for to be isolated

Question 57

postmodernism

Answer 57

• A new society rich in choice, freedom and diversity.
• The postmodern world is characters by sercularisation
• media saturated - society has become more dominated by the power of digital information.
• THE ENLIGHTENMENT PROJECT:

In a post-modern society, the media create a h**yper-reality where signs appear more real than reality itself, leaving us unable to distinguish between reality and image. = (BAURDRILLARD)

Question 58

postmodernism

Baudrillard: Simulacra

Answer 58

• society is no longer based on the production of material goods, but rather on buying and selling knowledge in the form of signs.
• he call these signs simulacra, which situations are a hyperreality (sign appear more real that reality itself.)

Question 59

evaluation of postmoderist

marxists

Answer 59

• A Marxist might argue that postmodernists ignore the underlying power structures/ economic inequalities present in society. = While postmodernists emphasise cultural diversity, Marxists would argue that these cultural dynamics are shaped by material conditions and class struggles.
• From a Marxist perspective, not all people live solely through the media, as socioeconomic factors, such as class and access to resources, significantly shape individuals’ experiences = while media may plays a crucial role in shaping perceptions, it is not the sole determinant of people’s lives.

Question 60

society not as postmodern

LATE MODERNITY

GIDDENS

Answer 60

• prefers the term late modernity as opposed to postmodernity
• Giddens states that tradition loses its grip on individuals, they become increasingly 1. reflexive (we are continually re-evaluating our ideas, nothing is fixed)
• late modernity encourage globalisation and rapid change
• 2. Disembedding - the ability to interact with one another without having to make face-to-face contact.
• factors such as education, socialisation, and access to information can depend on the degree to which individuals engage in reflective
• other factors such as socioeconomic status, cultural background, and personal experiences also can shape

Question 61

society not as postmodern - i think

beck - risk society

Answer 61

• Today we are faced with new maufactured (man-made) risks than in the past e.g. global warming, pollution etc
• He agrees with Giddens about the growth of individualism and says we constantly need to reflect on our actions (he calls it reflexive modernisation).
• As a result, risk consciousness becomes more aware of percieved risks and seek to avoid/minimise them.

Question 62

postmodernists argue the metanarratives are less useful for explaining how society works today + ‘MYTH OF TRUTH’

Answer 62

• lyotard argues that society is changing so rapidly and has become so complicated that society can no longer be understood by other theories as they are metanarrative
• society has become too fragmented and chaotic with people no longer believing in the ‘myth of truth’ and instead feeling doubt and uncertainty, so society should not try to be explained as a whole.

Question 63

Marxist theories of postmodernity

Answer 63

• Marxists offer a different analysis of postmodernity to Baudrillard, marxists regard it as merely the product of the most recent stage of capitalism. = to understand postmodernity, we must examine its relationship to capitalism.
• FLEXIBLE ACCUMULATION: The crisis meant that a new way of ACCUMALATING profits had to be created. Technology developed which allowed firms to communicate efficiently; workers had to become more flexible to meet employers needs. These changes brought about the common characteristics of postmodernity – e.g niche markets promoted cultural diversity.
• Flexible accumulation also turned leisure, culture and identity into commodities. jameson argues that it commodifies virtually all aspects of life, including identity.
• Harvey argues that this more developed capitalism has led to the compression of time and space. For example, The birth of holiday/travel agencies has meant people can travel anywhere in the world with a couple of transactions and a passport.Time has been compressed. Harvey argues capitalism has been able to shrink the globe.

Question 64

Baudillard - ‘sign-objects’ + Death of the social

Answer 64

sign objects:
- Baudrillard argues that objects have meanings for us – we don’t buy objects for their functional use, but because they signify that we are successful.
- Consumer goods and leisure activities are ‘sign-objects’ – we consume the image they offer rather than the object.
- people now have closer relationships with their consumer lifestyles e.g. food, not to statisfy hunger
death of the social:
- People now live ISOLATED LIVES sharing common consumption of the media
- we now live in a hyperactivity - a world which is increasingly percieved and experienced via the media

Question 65

social policy

Answer 65

• social problems involves form of behaviour, situation or conditions which are defiend as undesirable i.e. racism (distcrimation act) or educational underachievements (Bursary, FSM, EMA etc)
• social policies simply address social problems and try to eradicate them = often informed by sociological research.

Question 66

sociology understanding and social policy

Answer 66

E.G. Family (Palmer) asserst childhood has become toxic largely as a result of exposure to indecnt content online. Things like, exposure to film/video game which is not appropriate for viewers of a certain age.

Ways that they can rectify this issue is:
- Paternity leave: with more parental control for internet access this ensure the children will be looked after and increases the rise in the new man.
- Equal pay act: both parents have enough money to ensure their children have age restricted content. = also increases the rise in neoconventional famil.

Question 67

usefulness of social action theories

Answer 67

• explain the diverse range of actions and behaviours that are displayed in society
• Application to contemporary society allows us to understand why people reject the ideas of institutions such as education, politics and family.
• allows for the different perspective of individuals to be heard, rather than assuming that everybody is the same - particularly relevant to contemporary society with greater diversity and choices.

Question 68

Strengths and weaknesses of both ethnomethodoly and phenomenology

Answer 68

Strengths
- shows how meaning is created/negotiated
- shows how social construction of meanings can have consequences on individuals

Weakness
- ignores the structures in society
- a meta-narrative
- doesn’t explain motivations

Question 69

Qualitative methods strengths and weakness

Answer 69

Advantages:
- rapport = allows interviewer to develop a relationship
- flexible: not contained to a fix set of questions
- valid= people are more truthful

Weakness
- impractical: time consuming & may have a small group, needs impersonal skills
- unrepresentative = due to small group data cannot be obtained to a wider population

Question 70

positivism + quantitative methods

Answer 70

• Social reality exhibits observable and measurable patterns, analogous to natural laws.
• Positivists assert that these patterns are a result of societal influences shaping behavior.
• They utilise quantitative data to uncover and explain social patterns, favoring methods like experiments, questionnaires, structured interviews, and analysis of official statistics.

Question 71

Theoretical perspective on research methods

Answer 71

See notion

Question 72

Interpretivist on research

Answer 72

• Interpretivists aim to uncover the meanings behind human actions to understand social reality.
• They prioritise validity, seeking an authentic portrayal of how individuals construct and experience truth.
• Interpretivists reject questionnaires due to their detachment from respondents and inability to capture nuanced meanings.
• Questionnaires lack contact between researcher and respondent, hindering clarification and understanding of answers.
• Validity issues arise when respondents lie, forget, or try to impress researchers, leading to inaccurate data.
• Observation is favored by interpretivists as it allows direct insight into people’s actions, avoiding reliance on self-reported information.

Question 73

Feminism on structured interviews

Answer 73

• Many feminists reject structured interviews and questionnaires, criticising them as exploitative and reflective of patriarchal society.
• They argue that these methods perpetuate unequal power dynamics, with researchers taking an active role and subjects being passive objects of study.
• Feminists liken this approach to “research as rape,” where researchers intrude into subjects’ lives without offering reciprocity.
• Ann Oakley contends that this masculine approach prioritizes objectivity and science over the interests of the researched.
• Hilary Graham asserts that questionnaires and structured interviews distort women’s experiences and conceal power imbalances between the sexes.
• Feminist criticisms of these methods align with interpretivists’ concerns regarding detachment and imposition of researcher categories on subjects.

Question 74

Official statistics practical advantages

Answer 74

• Government statistics may not align with sociologists’ interests, leading to a lack of data on specific topics like race, religion, or ethnicity.
• Mismatches between different sets of statistics can occur, making it challenging to establish precise correlations between variables such as ill health and unemployment.
• State-defined definitions of social phenomena like homelessness or truancy may differ from sociologists’ definitions, impacting the perceived magnitude of social problems.
• Changes in state definitions over time or differences in definitions between countries hinder comparisons over time or across nations.
• Some statistics, such as those from infrequent data collection methods like the ten-year Census, may not provide up-to-date insights into current social trends.

Question 75

Interpretivism and statistics

Answer 75

• Interpretivists, like Cicourel, challenge the positivist notion that official statistics represent objective social facts, arguing instead that they are social constructs shaped by the labels officials attach to people.
• For interpretivists, official statistics on topics like mental illness are not true measures of the actual prevalence of the condition but rather reflections of the decisions made by doctors to label individuals.
• These statistics are seen as indicators of the social processes involved in labeling and stereotyping, rather than accurate representations of societal phenomena.
• Interpretivists advocate for studying how official statistics are socially constructed, emphasizing the importance of understanding the underlying processes rather than accepting statistics at face value.

Question 76

Marxism and statistics

Answer 76

• Marxists, like interpretivists, dispute the positivist belief in the objectivity of official statistics.
• Official statistics, according to Marxists, serve the interests of capitalism rather than merely reflecting labels applied by officials.
• Capitalist society is viewed as comprising two conflicting social classes: the capitalist ruling class and the working class.
• The state, aligned with the capitalist class, produces official statistics as part of the ideological state apparatus to maintain ruling-class ideology.
• Official statistics conceal or distort the reality of capitalism by omitting politically sensitive data and altering definitions, such as unemployment criteria.
• Social class categories based on occupation obscure class conflict and the existence of a ruling class.
• Critics acknowledge that some official statistics, like those on class-based health and life expectancy disparities, reveal evidence of class inequality.

Question 77

If Question was about functionalist usefulness in society

Here’s how to form it

Answer 77

Point 1:
- Discuss how functionalist advocates for a harmonious society
- Then Discuss (Parsons) ideas organic analogy: how different institutions works together and are interdependent - same way how. The organs in the body needs to work together.
- how the organic analogy is supported is through one of the AGIL scheme {chose one} e.g. particular goal attainment = this particular part helps to ensure harmonious society.

Question 78

Mead + Blumer

Summary

Answer 78

1) symbolic interactions - small scale perspectives of the interaction between individual
2) it explains individuals in society & interactions with others
3) Meads teaching discusses about the development of the individual as a social product. (Through construction i.e. the family, influence of others).