Family - Finalised Flashcards
(103 cards)
1
Q
What does Murdock argue and what is his perspective?
A
✩ Murdock is a Functionalist who argues that the family carries out four functions that are vital for society: Economic, Sexual Regulation, Primary Socialisation, Reproduction.
2
Q
Outline and explain his four functions.
A
Economic Function
- First, the nuclear family fulfils the economic function through the man working and providing for the family as the breadwinner. However, women also fulfil the economic function through a more domestic role as the housewife - often performing unpaid labour such as cleaning at home.
Primary Socialisation
- In addition to this, the nuclear family provides primary socialisation for their children, which is the first five years of the child’s life in which they learn the shared norms and values of society.
Sexual Regulation
- Furthermore, the nuclear family acts as a form of sexual regulation because sexual relationships between men and women within marriage control and regulate sexual urges, preventing infidelity or polygamous relationships as their sexual desires and needs are gratified.
Reproduction
- Lastly, the nuclear family performs a reproductive role as men and women reproduce children who will become the next generation of society.
3
Q
How can we criticise Murdock?
A
One criticism of this is that Murdock ignores family diversity in his findings. Society is changing, and we are evolving from the idea of there being only one family type (which has always been considered to be the nuclear family).
It could be argued that other family types such as the same sex family are able to carry out these four vital functions. For example, the parent in the single parent family, despite not having another adult role model, is able to provide adequate primary socialisation for their child.
4
Q
What does Parsons argue and what is his perspective?
A
✩ Parsons is a Functionalist sociologist who argues that the family is vital because they perform: primary socialisation of children and stabilisation of adult personalities.
5
Q
What is Parson’s Warm Bath Theory?
A
Parsons’ Warm Bath Theory
- The warm bath theory was the idea that when the man, who performed the instrumental role as the breadwinner of the household, came home from a hard day of work, he could relax into his family like a warm bath.
- The woman, who performs the expressive role, provides emotional support for the man, soaking up all his stress.
- This would refresh him for the next day of work.
6
Q
How does Parsons argue that primary socialisation of children occur?
A
Primary Socialisation of Children
- The nuclear family acts as an agency of socialisation.
- Through the process of primary socialisation, children learn the culture of their society. By absorbing this culture, they accept society’s shared values and roles. As a result, they become upstanding members of society.
- Therefore, the nuclear family helps maintain a stable society.
7
Q
How can we criticise Parsons?
A
He interprets family life through rose-tinted glasses, creating an idealised picture of family life centred on middle class experiences.
Family life is not always perfect, and this is evident in dysfunctional families, where potential abuse and neglect may occur.
8
Q
What do Liberal Feminists argue about women’s position in society?
A
✩ They argue that women’s oppression is being gradually overcome through changing people’s attitudes and through changes in the law such as the Equal Pay Act in 1970, which made it illegal for men or women to be treated unfavourably in terms of pay and conditions of employment.
✩ They believe we are moving towards greater equality however they argue that to achieve full equality between the sexes it would depend on further reforms in the laws and a further change of people’s attitudes.
9
Q
How can we criticise Liberal Feminists?
A
Other feminists would also criticise liberal feminists for believing that changes in the law will be enough to bring equality, arguing that there are still inequalities between the sexes.
For example, despite the introduction of the Gender Pay Act 1970, employees discretely discriminate against women in the form of lack of promotions due to the potential of maternity leave.
Therefore, there is still inequality between the sexes despite the introduction of these new laws.
10
Q
What do Marxist Feminists argue about why women’s oppression in the family occurs?
A
Marxist feminists such as Fran Ansley argue that the main cause of women’s oppression in the family is not men but rather capitalism.
11
Q
How does this occur, fully explain my favourite concept?
A
✩ One way in which women are oppressed by the capitalist system is that women absorb anger that would otherwise be directed at capitalism.
✩ Fran Ansley describes traditional wives as ‘takers of shit’ who soak up the frustration of their husbands because of the alienation and exploitation that the husband’s suffer at work from the bourgeoisie.
✩ This is significant because women keep the capitalist system going by being these ‘takers of shit’ who absorb all the men’s anger that would have been directed at the capitalist system, allowing the man to keep going to work the next day.
✩ This reinforces the ruling class ideology in which the bourgeoisie continue to exploit the proletariat. Thus, Marxist feminists view the oppression of women in the family as being linked to the exploitation of the working class.
✩ Therefore, this is why Marxist feminists would argue that the main cause of women’s oppression in the family is not men but rather capitalism.
12
Q
How can this concept be criticised?
A
Marxist feminists portray the domestic life of the family in a very negative way, where women are exploited by men in the family and the capitalist system.
While some families may be unequal and male-dominated, there may well be families that are much more equal such as symmetrical families.
13
Q
What do Radical Feminists argue about the family?
A
✩ Lastly, radical feminists such as Delphy and Leonard argued that the family is patriarchal in nature and allows men to have a sense of authority at home.
14
Q
How is the family patriarchal in nature?
—> talk about expectations
—> talk about leisure time
A
✩ In addition to this, the patriarchal society has created a set of expectations of being a wife and a mother to perform the household work without pay, meaning that the hard and strenuous household work that housewives have to perform is largely ignored as it is considered to be a norm to perform unpaid and tedious labour as a housewife and mother.
✩ Furthermore, a man’s time in the home was used for leisure based on assumptions that work was completed outside the home whereas women did not receive such leisure time due to assumptions about them enjoying household work and childcare.
15
Q
Tell me about how one particular group benefit from a patriarchal society.
A
In our patriarchal society, the people who most benefit from women’s work and oppression of women’s freedom and free time are men.
16
Q
Alternatively, what do Difference Feminists propose?
A
Difference Feminists argue that Radical and Liberal Feminism is an ethnocentric view – it reflects the experiences of mainly white, middle class women.
Not all women live in nuclear families, and we cannot generalise women’s experiences as all women have different experiences.
17
Q
How would Radical Feminists refute this counter-argument?
A
Radical Feminists would say that difference feminists neglect the fact that many women still share many of the same experiences.
For example, women are still more likely to be domestically abused in the home than men and more likely to be victims of sexual assault than men.
18
Q
What does Zaretsky argue about the family and what is his perspective?
A
✩ As a Marxist, he believes that Modern capitalist society has created an illusion that the ‘private life’ of the family is separated from the economy.
19
Q
How do families keep the capitalist system going, and give an example?
A
✩ Unit of consumption: Advertisers urge families to ‘Keep up with the Joneses’ by consuming all the latest products.
✩ The media target children, who use ‘pester power’ to persuade parents to spend more.
The children who lack the latest clothes or ‘must-have’ gadgets are mocked and stigmatised by their peers.
20
Q
How are housewives involved in the capitalist system?
A
In addition to this, the capitalist system depends on the unpaid domestic labour of housewives who reproduce and support the future generation of workers.
21
Q
How can we criticise the Marxist perspective on the family?
A
Sociologists would argue that Zaretsky’s research is old fashioned and outdated. This is because feminists would argue that it fails to take into account that women may work.
For example, women may suffer from the double shift, where women may come home from work and partake in unpaid household responsibilities such as cleaning and childcare while the father relaxes.
Therefore, Zaretsky fails to take into account the role of working women in maintaining the capitalist system –> perhaps Marxist feminism would be a better perspective on exposing the functions of the family rather than purely a Marxist perspective.
22
Q
What does Engels argue about the family and what is his perspective?
A
✩ Engels argued that the advent of capitalism and the ownership of property changed the way in which the family had operated.
✩ The family had a distinct economic function for capitalism, which made sure that wealth and power remained with the bourgeoisie
23
Q
How was wealth and power maintained within the bourgeoisie?
Fully outline this concept.
A
- Ownership of private property, the land and wealth needed to be inherited from the son by the father and due to practices of polygamy this was not possible.
- As a result, society had shifted to monogamous relationships rather than polygamous relationships and the bourgeoisie having to control their sexual behaviours.
- This brought about a patriarchal monogamous nuclear family and led to the ‘World historical defeat of the female sex’ where women have been turned into a mere instrument for the production of children.
- For example, patrilineal inheritance meant that in order to make sure the child is of the father, people formed monogamous relationships to protect claims on their property.
- This keeps the power and wealth within the powerful bourgeoisie, so that they can continue to exploit the proletariat.
24
Q
How can Marxist Feminists criticise Engel’s viewpoint?
A
When compared to the Marxist feminist viewpoint, they would criticise the purely Marxist viewpoint as it fails to consider how women and children are exploited by the capitalist system.
This is because Marxist feminists would argue that the capitalist system disadvantages women. They argue that women’s exploitation within the family is due to the fact that women are encouraged to carry our unpaid work within the home.
Therefore, this helps capitalism to flourish.
25
What is the Radical Feminist explanation of Domestic Abuse?
Fully outline the concept
✩ Millet and Firestone argue all societies have been founded on patriarchy. We live in a patriarchal society, where men hold power over women in society, family and relationships. Within the family, men dominate women through domestic abuse or the threat of it.
✩ Therefore, radical feminists argue that widespread domestic violence is inevitable in our patriarchal society and serves to preserve the power that men have over all women.
26
How can this be criticised?
Radical feminists fail to explain women as the perpetrators of domestic abuse.
For example, it fails to account for child abuse by women, violence against male partners and within lesbian relationships.
27
What is the Materialist Explanation of Domestic Abuse?
Fully outline the concept.
✩ Wilkinson and Pickett argue that domestic violence is a result of stress caused by social inequalities between the middle and lower classes. This means that domestic violence happens due to having a lack of money and financial resources. This reduces the chances of maintaining caring relationships between family members.
✩ For example, the breadwinner of the family who is worried and stressed about paying the bills may result in domestic abuse to release his stress. Thus, those who have low income have greater stress compared to middle class families who have higher incomes.
Therefore, working class families with the least money are at the greatest risk of domestic abuse occurrence.
28
How can this be criticised?
The materialist explanation fails to explain domestic abuse in middle class families. Domestic abuse doesn’t only occur in working class families, it can also affect families who have a high social class.
For example, in middle class families, domestic abuse may still occur despite having high incomes to fulfil their financial needs and stress.
29
What do Barrett and McIntosh argue?
Men control the family's income and have the power to make decisions about how it is spent.
Men gain far more from women’s domestic work than they give back in financial support.
Financial support provided to wives is unpredictable and often comes with strings attached. E.g. spent on children rather than their wife's own need or leisure.
Men usually make the decisions about expenditure on important items.
30
How has recent evidence criticised the idea that men are in control of family income and decision making?
However, there has been recent evidence to oppose the idea that men are in control of the family’s income and decision making.
Laurie and Gershuny found that by 1995, 70% of all couples said they had an equal say in decision making. Significantly, though, they found that women who were high earning, well qualified professionals were more likely to have an equal say.
31
What does Kempson argue?
Research shows that family members do not share resources such as money or food equally.
For example, Kempson found in lower class families that women denied their own needs, rarely went out, ate smaller meals or even missed them out in order to make ends meet.
32
How is this criticised by Feminists?
However, feminists argue that inequalities in decision making are not simply the result of inequalities in earning.
In a patriarchal society, the idea of men as decision makers is deeply ingrained in both men and women through gender role socialisation. Decision-making is likely to remain unequal until this definition is challenged.
33
What two types of control over family income do Paul and Vogler identify?
✩ The allowance system, where men give their wives an allowance of which they have to budget to make ends meet such as how they would distribute their money for shopping, groceries and money for their children’s lunches, with the man retaining any extra income for his own needs.
✩ In Pooling, both partners have access to income and joint responsibility for expenditure. For example, a joint bank account.
34
What does Paul and Volger identify regarding decision-making in the household?
✩ When the pooled income is controlled by the husband, this tends to give men more power in major financial decisions
✩ Pahl and Vogler found that even during pooling, men usually made the major financial decisions.
✩ Very important decisions such as those involving a change of job or moving house were usually taken by the husband alone or when decisions were taken jointly, the husband had the final say.
35
Alternatively, how can this be criticised by the personal life perspective?
✩ Alternatively, the personal life perspective focuses on the meanings couples give to who controls the money. For example, there is evidence that same-sex couples often give a different meaning to control of money in a relationship.
✩ Carol Smart found that some gay men and lesbians attached no importance to those who controlled the money and were perfectly happy to leave this to their partners. They did not see the control of money as meaning either equality or inequality in the relationship.
36
Evaluate sociological contributions to our understanding of family diversity.
37
What is 'Individualisation Thesis?'
✩ A postmodernist term. Traditional social structures have lost their importance and individuals have much more freedom to decide how to live their lives (and the types of families to create). Have less fixed roles to follow
38
Giddens: 'Pure Relationship' theory & 'Choice and Equality' theory.
'Choice and Equality'
✩ Family and marriage have been transformed by greater choice and a more equal relationship between men and women.
✩ This transformation occurred because
- Contraception has allowed sex and intimacy to become the main reason for a relationship’s existence rather than reproduction.
- Women have gained independence because of the rise of feminism and greater opportunities in work and education as girls are achieving higher than boys now.
The pure relationship
✩ People now seek ‘the pure relationship’ according to Giddens one that exists to satisfy the needs of each partner rather than for the sake of the children or tradition, resulting in higher divorce rates and greater family types.
39
How can the individualisation thesis be criticised through the connectedness theory?
The connectedness theory states however that we live within networks of existing relationships and personal histories that influence our range of opinions and choices in relationships, restricting our freedom of choice.
This challenges the notion of the pure relationship as families include more than just couples and they aren’t pure relationships that we can walk away from at will. For example, parents who separate still remain linked by their children often against their wishes
40
Beck: 'Negotiated Family' theory
✩ We live in a risk society where tradition has less influence and people have more choice, as a result we are more aware of making risks.
✩ Originally people were expected to marry for life and once married, men were instrumental and the breadwinner and disciplinarian. This was oppressive and patriarchal but was predictable and a stable basis for the family life.
✩ There has been a rise in the negotiated families who do not conform to the traditional family norms but vary according to the wishes of the family in late modern society.
✩ The negotiated family is less stable than a patriarchal family because individuals are free to leave if their needs are not met causing diversity e.g. lone parent families.
✩ One reason why the patriarchal family has been undermined is due to greater gender equality, which has challenged male domination in all spheres of life.
✩ For example, women now expect equality both at work and in marriage.
✩ Therefore, while negotiated families do not conform to the traditional family norms, they vary according to the wishes and expectations of their members, in which they decide what is best for them through negotiation.
41
How is Giddens' and Becks' view about the individuals in families ethnocentric and based on Western bias?
Giddens’ and Beck’s view about the individual is an idealized version of a White middle-class man’ according to May. It fails to take into consideration other cultural factors that may impact choice.
They ignore the fact that not everyone has the same access to exercise choice about relationships and may be bound by cultural factors such as social pressure from someone’s family to marry someone who has the same religion as them.
42
Stacy: Postmodern families
- Family diversity is a reflection of postmodern society. There is no one family form which everyone wants or needs.
- Postmodern culture is 'diverse, fluid and unresolved' and Stacey sees this as positive as differing family forms reflect different situations.
- Stacey argues that women have more freedom than ever before to shape their family arrangement to meet their needs and free themselves from patriarchal oppression.
- She discovered that many women rejected the traditional housewife role and had chosen extremely varied life paths.
- Stacey identified a new type of family “the divorce-extended family” – members are connected by divorce rather than marriage, for example ex in-laws, or former husband’s new partners.
43
What is Chester's view on our current understanding of family diversity?
- Like functionalists, Chester sees the nuclear family as being dominant, but he recognises that the traditional nuclear family has changed to what he calls a 'neo-conventional' family in which both spouses go out to work and the division of labour is more equal and shared.
- Chester argues that the so-called 'family diversity' is more about the lifecycle than people choosing to live in new family arrangements. Most people in single-person households are either elderly widows or younger or divorced people who aspire to live in a nuclear family.
Chester identifies patterns to support his view:
- For example, while cohabitation has increased, most couples have a temporary phase before marrying or re-marrying. Most couples get married if they have children.
44
What is the functionalist perspective on families and social policy?
✩ Society is built on harmony and consensus (shared values), and free from major conflicts. They see the state as acting in the interests of society as a whole and its social policies as being for the good of all.
45
Outline Ronald Fletcher and his beliefs fully.
✩ Ronald Fletcher - He argues that the introduction of health, education and housing policies in the years since the industrial revolution has gradually led to the development of a welfare state that supports the family in performing its functions more effectively.
✩ For instance, the existence of the NHS means that with the help of doctors, nurses, hospitals and medicines, the family today is better able to take care of its members when they are sick.
46
Why is social policy thus important for functionalists?
Therefore, social policies are significant in society as according to functionalist it helps families to perform their functions more effectively and make life better for their members.
47
Why do Marxists criticise the functionalist perspective on families and social policy?
What would they propose instead about social policies?
It assumes that there is a 'march of progress', with social policies steadily making family life better and better.
However, Marxists for example argue that policies can also turn the clock back and reverse progress previously made, for example by cutting welfare benefits to poor families.
48
What is the feminist perspective on families and social policy?
✩ They see society as patriarchal.
✩ Social polices help maintain women’s position as subordinate to men and maintain unequal gender division of labour in the family and pay in the workplace.
49
Who is Drew and what are gender regimes?
Drew, a feminist, uses the concept ‘gender regimes’ to describe how social policies in different countries can either encourage or discourage gender equality in the family and at work.
50
What are Familistic gender regimes ?
Policies are based on a traditional gender division between a male breadwinner and female housewife and carer.
For example, in Greece there is little state welfare or publicly funded childcare.
This means that they must rely heavily on support from their extended kin or husband.
51
What are Individualistic gender regimes?
Policies are based on the belief that husbands and wives should be treated the same.
For example, in Sweden, policies treat husbands and wives as equally responsible for domestic tasks and being a provider.
E.g. Good quality welfare services, equal opportunities policies and state provision of childcare
This means that women are less dependent on their husbands and have more opportunities to work and become financially independent.
52
How can the feminist perspective on families and social policy be criticised?
Not all policies are to maintain the patriarchy e.g. equal pay act
Alternatively, according to other sociologists it fails to identify clearly who benefits from such policies of surveillance. Marxists, for example, argue that social policies generally operate in the interests of the capitalist class, while feminists argue that men are the main beneficiaries.
53
What is the New Right perspective on families and social policy?
✩ They believe that state policies have encouraged changes that lead to greater family diversity and helped to undermine the nuclear family
✩ Social policies should avoid doing anything that might undermine this 'natural, 'self-reliant' family (nuclear family-with divisions of labour).
54
What does Murray argue about welfare policies?
Murray argues these welfare policies offer 'perverse incentives'- they reward irresponsible/ anti-social behaviour.
If fathers see that the state will maintain their children, some of them will abandon their responsibilities towards their families.
55
Provide an example as to how this irresponsible behaviour is rewarded.
Providing council housing for unmarried teenage mothers encourages young girls to become pregnant.
56
What are Murray's views on the existence of lone-parent families?
The growth of lone-parent families, encouraged by generous benefits, means more boys grow up without a male role model and authority figure.
This lack of paternal authority is responsible for a rising crime rate among young males.
57
Applying material from Item B and your own knowledge, evaluate the view that gender roles and relationships have become more equal in modern family life.
58
Fully outline Parsons' functionalist model theory.
✩ Parsons' functionalist model of the family suggests there is a clear division of labour between spouses, and it should stay this way in modern family life:
- The husband has an instrumental role, geared towards achieving success at work so that he can provide for the family- breadwinner
- The wife has an expressive role, geared towards primary socialisation of the children and meeting the family's emotional needs as full-time housewife. Another responsibility of the housewife is that she is in control of the domestic tasks such as cleaning and cooking.
59
Why should labour be divided in this way in regards to gender differences?
Parsons argues that this division of labour is based on biological differences, with women 'naturally' suited to the nurturing role and men to that of provider.
He claims that this division labour is beneficially to both men and women, to their children and to wider society.
60
How can this model be critcised?
By adhering to a traditional nuclear family framework and overlooking the increasing variety of family forms such as single-parent families, same-sex couples, and extended families in modern society, the model therefore becomes outdated.
This means it is limited in its applicability to the understanding how gender roles and relationships have become more equal in modern family life
61
What is Young and Wilmott's view on the family, their perspective and the coin they termed for this new, emerging family type?
✩ Young and Willmott are functionalists who take a 'march of progress' view of the history of the family.
✩ They see family life as gradually improving for all its members, becoming more equal and democratic.
✩ They argue that there has been some long-term trend away from segregated conjugal roles and towards joint conjugal roles and the 'symmetrical family'.
62
How is family life becoming more equal according to Wilmott and Young?
The symmetrical family embraces the dual earner model, leading to the increased participation of woman in the labour market as both spouses are contributing to the family income.
Moreover, Wilmott and Young observed a trend towards shared decision-making within their relationship and domestic responsibilities, with both spouses contributing to tasks such as cooking, cleaning, and childcare.
63
Why have these changes occurred?
Provide an example of how this has happened.
Young and Willmott see the rise of the symmetrical family as a result of major social changes. One of these major social changes, for example, include advances in technology due to remote working.
For instance, software engineers can work through the comfort of their own home and thus have more spare free time. This may lead to the man being more likely to help out in the home.
64
How has the 'symmetrical family' been criticised by Feminists?
Feminists such as Ann Oakley would argue that the symmetrical family is not truly equal because it has led to woman having to perform the dual burden.
This is because while there is increased choice for women to go out to work. This has also led to the dual burden where women have to perform paid work and go home to perform unpaid domestic labour while the man relaxes at home.
Therefore, gender roles and relationship have become less equal in modern family life as a strain is put on the woman to perform the ‘dual burden.’
65
What is the radical feminists perspective on domestic division of labour?
✩ Radical Feminists such as Delphy and Leonard argue that the family is patriarchal and attempts to control women.
✩ According to the radical feminist view, women are forced by men to partake in unpaid domestic labour.
✩ For example, the women may perform household tasks such as cooking and cleaning without any rewards for the hard work that they have performed.
66
How has the patriarchal society disregarded the hard work of women?
This is significant because our patriarchal society (which serves in the interests of men) has created a set of expectations in which the women is expected to work as a housewife whereas the man has to go out to work as the breadwinner and provide for the family.
As a result, the hard work of women is largely ignored. Even if they are rewarded for their hard work with money, for example, the man may force them to spend this on their children rather than having freedom to spend this money on their own needs and desires.
67
How has the radical feminist perspective on domestic division of labour been criticised?
Radical feminists are essentialists. They assume that all men attempt to impose their power on woman through the family.
However, this is not always the case.
Some men advocate for the equality of women within the family and may allow for women to pursue their own interests such as participating in paid work within the labour market through dual career families.
68
Can you fully outline Elizabeth Bott's theory about 'Joint Conjugal Roles'?
A joint relationship, on the other hand, is one where the differentiation – or ‘division of labour’ – is much less clear, and tasks, interests and activities are shared to a much greater degree. spend their leisure time together.
Typical of middle class families, but found increasingly in working-class families
Within the context of joint conjugal roles, husbands and wives share domestic duties among themselves. This means that both partners take part in cleaning, shopping, cooking, and childrearing. They also make decisions about the family, money, and the household together.
69
Who was Elizabeth Bott, and why was she important in research into domestic division of labour?
Hint: 3 points.
In-depth study of 20 London families and developed the idea of joint conjugal and segregated conjugal roles as a means of identifying changes in gender and role relationships within the family
She found that class was a significant factor in determining the type of roles played within the family, she also noted that social networks played a significant role.
She argued that that joint conjugal role relationships are more-likely to develop within the family if the social network surrounding the family is highly dispersed, rather than highly connected.
70
Can you fully outline Elizabeth Bott's theory about 'Segregated Conjugal Roles'
Segregated roles involve a clear differentiation between the tasks undertaken by men and women, with each pursuing clearly defined and distinct activities. Their leisure time also tends to be separate.
Typical of working class families, but may be found in some middle class families.
When it comes to segregated conjugal roles, men would be responsible for wage labour and for “male” domestic tasks, such as mowing the lawn or taking out the rubbish. Women are expected to take care of the children.
71
How can Elizabeth Bott's theory be criticised?
However, one criticism of the idea of 'joint conjugal roles' is that the domestic tasks of both women and men in the joint conjugal roles that some families perform is still based on gender. This is because men and women may perform domestic tasks based on what matches with gender stereotypes.
For example, when helping out the men may perform DIY tasks such as cleaning the car or taking care of the garden whereas women may perform traditional asks such as childcare and cleaning of the home.
72
What are reasons for the decline in Birth Rate?
Changes in the position of women
> Easier access to divorce
> Increased educational opportunities – girls now do better at school than boys.
> Access to abortion and reliable contraception (the importance of which is emphasised during teenage years), giving women more control over their fertility.
Decline in infant mortality rate
> Improved housing and better sanitation such as clean drinking water. Infants are much more vulnerable to infection as they immune system has been less developed.
> Medical advancements leading to the successful birth of children. For example, using newborn screening to detect hidden conditions in infants in order to help prevent infant mortality.
> No need to have as many children as possible.
Child centredness
> Family size has shifted from ‘quantity’ to ‘quality’ and parents now have fewer children and lavish more attention and resources on these few.
73
What are reasons for the decline in the Death Rate?
Improved nutrition
> McKeown found that having a better diet accounted for half of the decrease in the death rate and increased people's resistance to infection.
Medical improvements
> From the 1950s, death rate decreased partly due to medical factors.
> For example, vaccinations, antibiotics, blood transfusions, better maternity services and the creation of the NHS have led to lower deaths.
Public health improvements
> This is because we have a more effective government with the power to pass and enforce laws led to better public health.
> For example, we have better housing, purer drinking water, and cleaner airs, laws against the adulteration of food and improved sewage disposal.
74
(Modern society and old age)
Why does Ageism occur, and how does it happen?
Marxists argue that...
Ageism occurs as a result of ‘structured dependency’
Largely excluded from paid work, leaving them economically dependent on their families or the state. In modern society, our importance is determined in our role in production.
Phillipson, a Marxist argues that the old are no longer of use to capitalism because they cannot be productive. So, the state is unwilling to support them adequately and thus family often must take responsibility for their care.
75
(Postmodern society and old age)
How are now living in a postmodern society in which the line between old people and young people have been blurred?
- Fixed, orderly stages of life course have broken down.
- Children dressing in adult styles, old people following the trends, later marriage
- Individuals now have a greater choice of lifestyle, whatever their age
- Hunt argus we can choose a lifestyle and identity regardless of our age; it no longer determines who we are or how we live.
76
What are the effects of an aging population?
Hint: There are three effects on the 'Answer'. 2/3 is enough for correct 'Answer'.
More one-person pensioner households (these now account for one in every seven households)
An increase in the aging population leads to a rise in the dependency ratio. This is because the non-working old need to be provided by those of working age such as taxation to pay for pensions and health. Therefore, more retired people means an increased dependency ratio)
One effect of an aging population is ageism. This is because age statuses are socially constructed, and old age is often constructed as a problem. Negative stereotypes often portray the old as income and a burden.
77
What is the impact of migration of UK population structure?
Immigrants are more likely to be of working age and this helps to lower the dependency ratio
Immigrants are typically younger and have more children, thus increasing the dependency ratio – eventually children join the workforce decreasing the dependency ratio
78
What factors may affect dependency ratio?
An increase in the aging population leads to a rise in the dependency ratio. This is because the non-working old need to be provided by those of working age such as taxation to pay for pensions and health. Therefore, more retired people mean an increased dependency ratio)
A fall in birth rate has led to a decrease in the dependency ratio as less children are being born, who would be dependent on their parents.
Decrease in Infant Mortality Rate has led to an increase in the dependency ratio. This is because more dependent children are being born as a result of babies dying less.
79
Why has there been an increase in the ageing population?
> Increasing life expectancy – more people are living into old age
> Decreasing infant mortality – substantially less people die in early life.
> Declining fertility – fewer people are being born compared to the number of older people.
80
Fully outline Postman's perspective on Childhood.
Postman argues that childhood is ‘disappearing at a dazzling speed’ pointing towards the trend of giving adults and children the same right.
Postman’s identified the existence of the informational hierarchy.
The informational hierarchy means the idea that technology blurs the distinction between childhood and adulthood.
For example, some children are able to access age-restricted information and content such as pornography at a very young age without a parent’s knowledge in contrast to the past before technology became prevalent where young children could only gain access to such content at an older age - normally adulthood due to strict restriction and protection from parents
Therefore, the fact that technology acts as a rift which distorts the belief of what adults and children can have entry to.
81
How can Postman's perspective on Childhood be criticised?
(Hint: Opium!)
According to Opie, childhood isn't disappearing.
Opie conducted lifetime research into unsupervised games, rhymes & songs and found strong evidence of continued existence of continued existence of separate children's culture over many years, directly opposing the view that childhood is disappearing.
82
Can you fully outline Aries and Shorter's view on Childhood, with examples?
Aries and Shorter hold a ‘march of progress’ view. They argue that today’s children are more valued, protected and better cared for than children from previous generations.
For example, children today are protected from harm and exploitation by laws against child abuse such as the Children Act 1989.
In addition to this, children enjoy better healthcare and living standards meaning that now babies have a much better chance of survival than a century ago.
83
Why is Aries and Shorter's perspective on Childhood subjective to bias, with examples?
Westernised notion of childhood. This is because not all children share the same childhood experiences and opportunities.
For example, a child may have a different experience of childhood in one nation to another. 90% of low-birth-weight children are from developing counties, hence a child may have a worse childhood than from another area.
84
Fully outline the sociologist and their theory about society's biggest problem today.
Toxic Childhood :(
Sue Palmer argues that children in the UK right now are experiencing a ‘toxic childhood’. This means that the fast technology and cultural changes within the past 25 years have damaged children’s physical, emotional and intellectual development.
For example, social media such as TikTok have led to the negative influence of role models on the children of our society.
In addition to this, young people’s health and behaviour is deteriorating. This is supported by the increasing number of children with attention deficit disorders such as ADHD, which could have been as a direct result of constant exposure to social media at a young age especially YouTube shorts with clips of only 30 seconds (rendering our generation unable to focus for prolonged periods of time)
Therefore, children are experiencing a toxic childhood where they are challenged by addiction to technology, social media and suffer from anti-social behaviour and mental health in the UK.
85
How has society tried to counter the advent of 'Toxic Childhood'?
One criticism of this however is that society understands that people are experiencing toxic children. For example, ways we have combated toxic childhood is through counselling in schools and the emphasis of the safeguarding and the safety of students.
86
Tell me about the different ways in which inequalities between children and adults exist, and fully explain your point.
Adults in modern society control children’s daily routines through deciding certain actions such as the time at which they should come home (curfews).
In addition to this, adults control the speed at which their children grow up.
For example, a parent may restrict their child from watching movies that are directed to an adult audience because they are not ‘old enough’ to watch it, even though it may provide their children with valuable information, knowledge and insight they may need when they enter adulthood.
This means that a parent defines whether a child is too young or too old to partake in a certain activity or behaviour, thus controlling the speed at which children grow up.
87
Alternatively, what do post-modernists believe about childhood?
Alternatively, post-modernists such as Jenk would argue that modern society has created childhood to prepare the individual, rather than to control them.
Jenks believes that childhood appears to be changing rather than being static. For Jenks, modern society was concerned with 'futurity' and childhood was seen as a preparation for the individual to become a productive adult in the future.
To achieve this, the underdeveloped child needed to be nurtured, protected and controlled, especially by the 'child-centred' family and by the education system, which imposed discipline and conformity on children.
88
Can you outline three reasons (explained) for the increase in the divorce rate in the last 50 years or so?
Declining stigma and changing attitudes
- Stigma declines and divorce becomes more socially acceptable.
- Divorce is normalised and is seen as a misfortune rather than shameful.
Secularisation
- Churches tended to condemn divorce and refused to conduct marriage services involving divorcees.
- Religious institutions and ideas are losing their influence in society.
Women's increased financial independence
- Improvements in their economic position have made them less financially independent on their husband and are thus freer to end an unhappy marriage
- For example, greater success in girls’ education now helps them to achieve better-paid jobs than previous generations.
89
Sociological Explanations for Ethnic Differences in Family and Household Patterns
90
Point #1 Lone Parent families; please explain this point using (PEEA)
Point
Explanation
Evidence
Analysis
Point: Immigration has contributed to a rise in 'lone parent' families.
Explain: Black Caribbean and Black Africans have a higher proportion of lone-parent households usually headed by a lone mother.
Evidence: In 2012, just over half of all families with dependent children headed by a black person were lone-parent families.
Analysis: The high rate of lone-parent black families led by females can be seen as evidence of family disorganisation which can be traced back to high rates of male unemployment amongst black males. It was found that high levels of male unemployment made black men less able to provide for their family which often resulted in marital breakdowns or desertions.
91
How can the viewpoint of an increase in lone parent families be criticised?
Reynolds argues that the statistics are misleading, many of these lone parents may be in stable, supportive but non-cohabiting relationships.
92
Point #2 Extended Family Households; please explain this point using (PEEA)
Point
Explanation
Evidence
Analysis
Point: Immigration has also contributed to a rise in 'extended family households').
Explain: Extended households contain three generations or more. Asian families tend to contribute to this rise in extended family structures.
Evidence: Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Indian households tend to be larger than those of other ethnic groups at: 4.4, 4.3 and 3 persons per household respectively, compared with 2.4 for both Black Caribbean and White British households.
Analysis: These larger households are often a result of the younger age profile of British Asians, a higher proportion of them are in the childbearing groups compared with the population as a whole. To some extent, these larger households are present because Asian cultures regard the extended family highly as a source of support.
93
How can the viewpoint of an increase in extended families be criticised?
However, over time Asian households have become more nuclear as opposed to extended and relatives often live nearby to deliver the same source of support.
94
Outline reasons for the increase in cohabitation.
- Increased cohabitation rates are as a result of the decline in stigma attached to sex outside marriage.
- The young are more likely to accept cohabitation
- Increased career opportunities may mean women have less need for the financial security of marriage and are freer to opt for cohabitation
- Secularisation: young people, without a religion are more likely to cohabit than those with a religion.
95
Outline 3 reasons why the total number of marriages has been declining.
Changing attitudes towards marriage
- Less pressure to marry and more freedom for individuals to choose the type of relationship they want. Widespread belief that the quality of a couple’s relationship is more important than the legal status.
Changes in the position of women
- With better educational and career prospects, men and women are now less economically dependent on men.
- This gives them greater freedom to marry. The feminist view that marriage is an oppressive patriarchal institution may also dissuade some women from marrying.
Secularisation
- While all major religious organisations are in favour of marriage, their influence declines as people feel freer to choose not to marry
96
What do the different perspective believe about 'high divorce rates'?
✩ Functionalists argue that a high divorce rate is not necessarily a threat to marriage as a social institution, it is simply a result of people’s higher expectations of marriage today. The high rate of re-marriage shows people's continuing commitment to the idea of marriage.
✩ Feminists see high divorce rate as desirable because it shows that women are breaking free from the oppression of the patriarchal nuclear family.
✩ The New Right sees a high divorce rate as undesirable because it undermines marriage and the traditional nuclear family, which they believe is vital to social stability.
High divorce rate > growing underclass of welfare-dependent female lone parents > burden on state> leaves boys without adult male role model > lower educational outcome.
97
Applying material from Item B9 and your own knowledge, evaluate sociological contributions to our understanding of the trends in divorce in the UK since 1970
98
Can you fully outline the Post-Modernist explanation for divorce?
Sociologists argue that in modern society, traditional norms such as the duty to remain with the same partner for life have lost their hold over individuals.
As a result, everyone becomes free to pursue his or her own self-interest. This view has become known as the individualisation thesis.
Relationships are now more fragile; individuals are unwilling to remain with a partner if their relationship fails to deliver personal fulfilment.
People now seek ‘the pure relationship’ according to Giddens one that exists to satisfy the needs of each partner rather than for the sake of the children or tradition, resulting in higher divorce rates and greater family types.
99
What is a direct criticism to the 'individualisation thesis'?
The connectedness theory states however that we live within networks of existing relationships and personal histories that influence our range of opinions and choices in relationships, restricting our freedom of choice such as being able to freely divorce.
This challenges the notion of the pure relationship as families include more than just couples and they aren’t pure relationships that we can walk away from at will. For example, parents who separate still remain linked by their children often against their wishes.
100
Can you fully outline the Feminist Perspective for divorce in the PEEA structure?
Point
Explanation
Evidence
Analysis
Point: Improvement of the financial position of women.
Explain: Women have gradually become less financially dependent on men, and this grants them freedom to end unsatisfactory marriages.
Evidence: This is supported by Allan and Crow, they argue that 'marriage is less embedded within the economic system'.
Analysis: This implies that the family is no longer a unit of production, so spouses are no longer dependent on one another financially.
Through better educational opportunities, women have access to their own source of income which allows them to not tolerate tense marriages or the absence of love, they can choose to seek out divorce whilst being able to support themselves economically.
101
How can this be directly criticised through the 'Gender Pay Gap'?
Challenging this, the gender pay gap does still exist in some cases, where women are paid less than men.
For example, despite the introduction of the Gender Pay Act 1970, employees still discretely discriminate against women in the form of lack of promotions due to the potential of maternity leave (glass ceiling)
Therefore, the extent to which they can support themselves is questionable.
102
Can you fully outline the Functionalist Perspective for divorce in the PEEA structure?
Point
Explanation
Evidence
Analysis
Point: Rising expectations within marriages.
Explain: This is linked with ideology changes.
Evidence: Functionalist Fletcher proposes that the higher expectations people place on marriage is a major cause of rising divorce rates.
Analysis: The ideology of romantic love has become more dominant. It suggests that marriage should be founded on love and if the love dies, spouses can divorce in hope of finding their new soulmate. This is a stark contrast to the past; traditional families were a unit of production and marriages were bound upon economic dependency and duties.
Consequently, couples were more likely to tolerate a lack of intimacy due to their low expectations unlike today's society. Today marriage is no longer seen as a binding contract but as an act of personal fulfilment which can increase the chances of divorce if individuals are unsatisfied.
103
How is this supported by New Right Perspective?
They would agree as high rate of remarriages shows that marriage is still a viable institution.
Also, believe that cohabited families would eventually become 'nuclear families' and that they are just delaying the inevitable.
