Media - Finalised Flashcards

Question

How do feminists criticise or offer an alternative perspective to the Hegemonic Marxists?

Answer 1

✩ Feminists would argue that it fails to take into consideration the patriarchal values that the media imposes upon its viewers. ✩ The media is owned largely and controlled by men and agenda-setting is a patriarchal exercise that serves to limit women’s role in media production and content.

Answer 2

✩ They see the media as democratic as everyone is given a platform to express their views. ✩ Many believe mass media is essential as most people gain knowledge about politics from newspapers, television and the internet.

Answer 3

✩ Pluralists argue the readers, viewers & listeners are the real power holders as they have the choice to buy or not to buy —> Freedom of choice. ✩ This causes competition between different media companies; the best company is the one who has tailored to their audience, giving them power. ✩ They have to tailor their products to appeal to certain social groups to avoid business failure. ✩ E.g. this is seen in the failure of the BlackBerry, they didn’t update their features to appeal to the young. ✩ The market determines media content and product, not the owner. ✩ Pluralists argue that the diversity of media products worldwide makes it impossible for the owner to control their content.

Answer 4

✩ Marxists counter this by arguing that the audience's 'choice' is an illusion, with the media manipulating consumer desires through advertising and creating false needs. For example, teasing the content of the next day’s paper.

Answer 5

✩ Today, it is impossible for owners or editors to control the media ✩ The extent of choice that people have over the media they wish to consume has become greater.

Answer 6

✩ Audience has the freedom to choose which media they consume. ✩ For example, people can use social media platforms to put across their own narratives. ✩ Media saturation; people are exposed to media messages all the time, so it is impossible to limit and control. ✩ Media saturation has become so increasingly prevalent we cannot distinguish between real life and the media version of real life called hyperreality. ✩ Can easily reject any hegemonic messages from the powerful and create their own narratives instead.

Answer 7

✩ Media saturation gives more power to owners and journalists. If people cannot distinguish between reality and a media construct, then that suggests that a great deal of power on the part of those who have power within the media.

Answer 8

✩ McQuail argues that news is a socially manufactured product because it is the result of a selective process. ✩ Gatekeepers, such as editors and journalists and media owners make choices and judgements about what events are important enough to cover and how to cover them. This makes the news a social construct. ✩ Things that they don’t want to the audience to know are gate kept/filtered. Things they want the audience to know are already set on their agenda as high priority. ✩ This causes media companies to follow a set of news values which allow them to decide which stories to focus on and which ones to ignore (Extreme and not mainstream) as the media is used as an ideological state apparatus.

Answer 9

✩ Stories are much more likely to be pursued and published if they meet news values. ✩ An example of a news value is... ✩ Continuity (Continue familiar news e.g. Boris Johnson Partygate Scandal) ✩ Once an event has become headline news it remains in the media spotlight for some time - even if its amplitude has been greatly reduced - because it has become familiar and easier to interpret. ✩ Continuing coverage also acts to justify the attention an event attracted in the first place.

Answer 10

✩ Marxists argue that the News Values are selected to represent the ruling class ideology ✩ The coverage of foreign affairs and natural affairs is precisely selected by the bourgeoisie. ✩ This diverts the proletariat from the real issues happening at home such as the living crisis. ✩ This deliberate distraction keeps the proletariat under the false class consciousness because they become unaware of true issue at hand because they are being exploited by the bourgeoisie. ✩ By directing attention away from immediate, tangible issues at home, the ruling class can perpetuate the idea of this sense of normalcy and prevent the proletariat from rebelling against the ruling class. ✩ Thus the news does not reflect social reality, but rather distracts from it.

Answer 11

✩ The collection, dissemination, and analysis of news and information by the general public, especially by means of the internet ✩ Postmodernists such as Drudge claims that citizen journalism allows every citizen to be a reporter ✩ Not constrained by any system of news values that might prevent certain facts from coming to life ✩ For example, the BBC was accused of not reporting knowledge of Jimmy Saville’s crimes because he occupied a powerful position within the BBC. ✩ Improves the democratic process and overcomes these obstacles ✩ Therefore, it challenges the idea that news is shaped by news values and supports the postmodern notion that mass media is now characterised by diversity.

Answer 12

✩ However, this is criticised Gilmor points out citizen journalism is often the product of a narrow and privileged part of society because it requires education, technical skills, money and time. ✩ It is, therefore, doubtful that traditional voiceless sections of society the poor and powerless are going to be citizen journalists due to this digital divide.

Answer 13

✩ A moral panic is an over exaggeration from the news that makes something bigger than it is, to produce a reaction from society. ✩ This idea says that sensationalist reporting by the newspapers distorts the act of the crime or deviance by making it worse than it actually is and increases public awareness. ✩ For example, Cohen studied how the media has demonised youth culture. This happened to Mods and Rockers in 1964, who were seen as modern-day folk devils who threatened social order. ✩ His research had found that actual acts of deviance were minimal however public pressure was put upon the courts to act, leading to many members of these gangs to be arrested and jailed.

Answer 14

✩ McRobbie and Thorton argue that new media has radically changed the relationship between the media and their audience and as a result undermined the overall impact of moral panics. ✩ Audiences are now allegedly more sophisticated in how they interpret news stories. ✩ Competition between different types of news media means that audiences are now exposed to a wider set of news interpretations about social problems and are thus more likely to be sceptical of their moral panic status

Answer 15

✩ Postmodernists regard the diversity of the globalised media as offering the world's population more choices in terms of their consumption patterns and lifestyles, opening up a greater global awareness and access to a diversity of cultures. ✩ Baudrillard believes that we now live in a media-saturated society where images now dominate and distort the way we see the world. ✩ This distorted view of the world has led to people being unable to distinguish between media and real life. This distorted view of the world is referred to as hyperreality. This means that we now identify more with media images than our own everyday experiences and thus live a media-lead virtual life. ✩ For example, we are now more likely to get excited about acts on a reality TV show or engage with in conversations with practically strangers over Facebook and Twitter, rather than get involved in the local community.

Answer 16

✩ As a result, the media can create perfect and idealist images which outperform the real thing, leaving the audience feeling depressed because their life can never match up to the onscreen projection. ✩ Therefore, the effect of globalisation on popular culture is that it has led to people being unable to distinguish between media and real life.

Answer 17

✩ However, Marxists would argue that global popular control acts as a form of social control. ✩ It gives the illusion of choice, but it really is only a choice between similar dumbed-down, trivial entertainment which maintains the ideological hegemony and power of the ruling class. ✩ This is because consumers are lulled into an undemanding, uncritical passivity and mindless social conformity, making them less likely to challenge the dominant ideas.

Answer 18

✩ Ritzer came up with a term called McDonaldization. This refers to how the media has become just like fast-food places, such as McDonald's, who have an efficiency driven approach that's the quick and the same everywhere. ✩ In media, McDonaldization means making things quick and streamlined. TV shows, movies, and news often follow the same formats and styles to appeal to a lot of people worldwide. This is demonstrated in how certain genres and predictable stories have become popular, and information gets spread fast. ✩ Therefore, the effects of globalisation on consumption of popular media are that it has been dumbed down to adapt to the audience’s undermined ability to think critically and their reduced attention spans.

Answer 19

✩ A good example of this in media is the use of short sound bites. These are brief and easy-to-understand pieces of information, such as 30 seconds shorts on YouTube. They're efficient and grab attention fast, but the downside is that sometimes they make complex issues seem too simple. ✩ This speedy way of sharing information can make it tough for people to get the full picture of what's really going on in the world. ✩ So, McDonaldization in media is making things fast and efficient, but it might mean we miss out on the details and complexity.

Answer 20

✩ The concept might be challenged on the grounds that it assumes a universal appeal for standardized content. ✩ Critics argue that audiences are not passive consumers and can actively seek diverse and unconventional media, challenging the notion that McDonaldization completely dictates cultural preferences

Answer 21

✩ McLuhan argues that the world is rapidly becoming a global village in which rapid technological change has caused space and time barriers in human communication to collapse. ✩ People around the world can communicate instantaneously on a global scale. For example, we can zoom or face time to communicate with people all over the world. ✩ In addition to this, we are able to have idealised Western ideas spread around the world about having a car, marriage and a house through the media.

Answer 22

✩ Is ‘global village’ actually a bad thing? ✩ Marxist view - Capitalism oppresses the proletariat and mass media communicates capitalist ideology around the globe. ✩ Mass media now spreads common mass cultural ideas across the globe, to keep the proletariat under false class consciousness.

Answer 23

✩ Ritzer argues that companies and brands now operate on a global scale, promoting a global culture along with the consumerist lifestyle associated with them, thereby weakening local cultures. ✩ As a result, companies use the transnational media to promote their products on a global stage and to make their logos global brands. ✩ For example, globally recognised logo's such as Apple, Nike and Google are known across the world in both Western and non-Western countries.

Answer 24

✩ This is further supported by Sklair, who argued that media is largely American based, spreading news information and popular culture to a global market. ✩ This encourages the acceptance of the dominant ideology as Sklair calls 'culture ideology of consumerism'. This means there is a shared western culture around the world of watching the same tv shows, films, music and fashion, thus sharing the same Westernised lifestyle. ✩ For example, Breaking Bad (an American Netflix show) is one of the most showed on the Netflix platform around the world. ✩ Therefore, with American companies such as Netflix dominating the streaming of television and film shows, it is apparent Western media is becoming popular around the world and is becoming more important than local media.

Answer 25

✩ Tomlinson argues that globalisation does not involve a direct cultural imposition from the Western world, but instead there is a hybridisation of cultures whereby individuals can 'pick and mix' and draw upon their own local culture as well as Western/global culture. ✩ Therefore, globalisation has allowed for an increased choice promoting different cultural styles around the world and helps for hybrid cultures.

Answer 26

✩ Ritzer came up with a term called McDonaldization. This refers to how the media has become just like fast-food places, such as McDonald's, who have an efficiency driven approach that's the quick and the same everywhere. ✩ In media, McDonaldization means making things quick and streamlined. TV shows, movies, and news often follow the same formats and styles to appeal to a lot of people worldwide. This is demonstrated in how certain genres and predictable stories have become popular, and information gets spread fast. ✩ Therefore, the effects of globalisation on consumption of popular media are that it has been dumbed down to adapt to the audience’s undermined ability to think critically and their reduced attention spans.

Answer 27

✩ A good example of this in media is the use of short sound bites. These are brief and easy-to-understand pieces of information, such as 30 seconds shorts on YouTube. They're efficient and grab attention fast, but the downside is that sometimes they make complex issues seem too simple. ✩ This speedy way of sharing information can make it tough for people to get the full picture of what's really going on in the world. ✩ So, McDonaldization in media is making things fast and efficient, but it might mean we miss out on the details and complexity.

Answer 28

✩ The concept might be challenged on the grounds that it assumes a universal appeal for standardized content. ✩ Critics argue that audiences are not passive consumers and can actively seek diverse and unconventional media, challenging the notion that McDonaldization completely dictates cultural preferences

Answer 29

✩ Tuchman et al. (1978) used the term symbolic annihilation to describe the way in which women’s achievements are often not reported or are condemned or trivialised by the mass media. ✩ Often their achievements are presented as less important than their looks and sex appeal.

Answer 30

✩ Duncan and Messner’s research (2002) into television sport presentation shows that what little coverage of women’s sport there is tends to sexualise, trivialise and devalue women’s sporting accomplishments. ✩ For example, different language is used by commentators (who are men) to talk about female athletes describing women in sports as girls while males in sports are rarely referred to as boys. ✩ This is significant as this is a clear example of how language choices create a double standard, where women's achievements are often downplayed or sexualized compared to their male counterparts.

Answer 31

✩ Green and Singleton argue that in new media, especially in the sense of digital technology, women are most empowered. Feminists have used new media to challenge symbolic annihilation. ✩ For example, campaigns like #WomenWhoInspire exemplify the impact of spotlighting positive role models. This hashtag encourages users to share stories of women who have made noteworthy contributions across diverse fields such as arts and science. ✩ The campaign not only celebrates individual achievements but also creates a collective narrative that challenges prevailing stereotypes. ✩ Therefore, showing how new media has allowed for women who have been historically underrepresented to be clearly shown, providing an inclusive space where women’s achievements can be represented equally.

Answer 32

✩ Promotes a traditional ideal where excellence is achieved through caring for others, the family, marriage and appearance.

Answer 33

✩ According to Ferguson, women's magazines revolve around a cult of femininity emphasising traditional values of caring for others, family, marriage, and appearance.

Answer 34

✩ Evidence to support this comes from a content analysis of teenage magazines in Britain indicating that there is a heavy focus on beauty and fashion (70% of content), with minimal attention given to education or careers (12% of content). Orbach argues that this emphasis on slimness and beauty in these magazines perpetuates the idea that slimness equals success in life. She accuses the media of encouraging young girls and women to be unhappy with their bodies. ✩ As a result, she argues that this may contribute to the development of eating disorder by constantly pushing women to be concerned with their weight, shape size and looks. For instance, advertisements promoting dieting may act as stressors, prompting women to constantly compare themselves to the size-zero supermodels portrayed in the media. This is significant because recent research has shown that eating order rates have doubled from the years 2000 to 2018. ✩ Therefore, traditional media representations, perpetuating stereotypes of femininity centred around a predefined ideal of beauty, may lead to unrealistic portrayals of women, leading to low self-esteem among female viewers regarding their own bodies.

Answer 35

✩ However, Winship challenges Ferguson’s view, arguing that women's magazines provide a wider range of options for women and address important issues like domestic violence and child abuse. ✩ This more nuanced view suggests that these publications can be platforms for meaningful discussions and empowerment, challenging the idea that they only reinforce traditional gender norms.

Answer 36

✩ A type of masculinity that was focused on appearance and fashion and which championed masculine values as caring and generous. The metrosexual male was thought to be in touch with his feminine side, useful around the home and considerate towards his female partner but still maintain their heterosexuality.

Answer 37

✩ Easthope argues that media, including Hollywood films and computer games, promote the idea that masculinity based on strength, aggression, competition, and violence is biologically determined and a natural goal for boys. ✩ However, in the 1980s, glossy magazines like Maxim emerged targeting middle-class young men. These magazines suggested that men should be emotionally vulnerable and in touch with their emotions or feminine side and the magazines advocated for treating women as equals and caring more about appearance. This new type of masculinity was called the "new man" by commentators.

Answer 38

✩ Post-modern sociologists speculated that this shift in masculinity was influenced by the increasing economic independence and assertiveness of women. ✩ As a result, media representations of the "new man" introduced the concept of the metrosexual male. ✩ The metrosexual male refers to men who focused on appearance, fashion, and championed caring and generous masculine values. The metrosexual male was depicted as being in touch with his feminine side, helpful around the home, and considerate towards his female partner.

Answer 39

✩ However, Gauntlett argues that there are still plenty of magazines aimed at men which sexually objectify women and stress images of men as traditionally masculine. ✩ Rutherford suggests that these magazines are symbolic of what he calls retributive masculinity – an attempt to reassert traditional masculine authority by celebrating traditionally male concerns in their content, i.e. ‘birds, booze and football’.

Answer 40

✩ Traditional media often confines masculinity within narrow stereotypes, reinforcing ideals centred on physical strength, emotional stoicism, and dominance. ✩ Men are commonly portrayed as primary breadwinners, their value linked to professional success. Emphasis on traditional gender roles suggests that men are assertive and effective leaders and problem solvers, perpetuating rigid notions of manhood. ✩ This portrayal of how men should act in the media leads to a neglecting of emotional vulnerability and nurturing qualities. For example, iconic comic book characters like Superman or Batman epitomize these ideals, embodying muscularity and emotional resilience. ✩ As a result, this can lead to a distorted perception of how men behave in real life as a result of media. ✩ Therefore, traditional media representations help to perpetuate typical stereotypes of men, leading to men being more likely to being promoted to higher positions because they are seen as more suited for roles of leadership due to the ideals associated with masculinity such as emotional resilience.

Answer 41

✩ However, media representations of men appear to be changing in the sense that men can have both a feminine and masculine side. ✩ For example, Whannel (2002) notes that mass media stories about and images of David Beckham are contradictory, in that they stress Beckham as representative of both metrosexual and retributive versions of masculinity. ✩ Whannel notes that media representations of Beckham are fluid – his good looks, his football skills, competitive spirit and his commitment mark him out as a traditional ‘real man’. ✩ However, this image has been balanced with alternative media representations that stress his metrosexuality, particularly his emotional commitment to his family and the fact that he spends a great deal of time, effort and money on his image.

Answer 42

✩ When the audience is put into the perspective of a heterosexual man and consequently sexualises women.

Answer 43

Item D: Some sociologists argue that negative gender stereotypes are often created and reinforced by the media, through the way that men/women are represented. Others point to how the media can also successfully subvert and challenge these stereotypes.

Answer 44

✩ Traditional gender stereotypes occur as a result of the media industry’s needs in the capitalist society to make a profit. ✩ As a result, the male dominated media aims to appeal to the large test audience possible through promoting traditional gender roles. ✩ This leads to positive images of women such as being independent and career driven are left out because these representations do not align with the profit driven media. ✩ To further add on to this, the media hyper focuses on the bodies of women. For example, findings have shown that the diet industry makes $100 billion a year in the USA. ✩ To drive the consumeristic society, they exploit women’s anxieties in the media by perpetuating these traditional media stereotypes such as women in advertisements having the most perfect and slim bodies so that the audience too can buy these projects and aim for the same false need.

Answer 45

✩ In criticism, radical feminists a different branch of feminist rather argue that it is traditional hegemonic images of feminists that serve to keep women oppressed into a narrow range of roles rather than solely for profit. ✩ They argued that this is done to preserve men’s power in the patriarchal society such that men’s patriarchal power is rarely challenged as seen in the lack of women in higher positions in the media industry. ✩ Therefore, women are relegated to subordinate positions such as sex objects in the media through the male gaze, preserving the interests of the patriarchal society.

Answer 46

✩ Pluralists claim that the concept of symbolic annihilation underestimates women’s ability to see through gender stereotyping and manipulation. ✩ They believe that feminists are guilty of stereotyping females as impressionable and easily influenced. They claim that there is no real evidence that girls and women take any notice of media content or that it profoundly affects their attitudes or behaviour. ✩ They also argue that the media simply reflect societal attitudes and tastes – in other words, public demand – meaning that the media is meeting both men’s and women's needs. ✩ Therefore, gender representations in media are perceived as reacting to existing societal expectations instead of actively influencing or shaping them.

Answer 47

✩ To criticise however, they fail to consider the possibility that sections of media actually create these public demands in the first place by shaping societal needs through their media content. ✩ For example, beauty adverts can lead to the audience internalising certain beauty standards and their beliefs regarding attractiveness. ✩ Therefore, the media can create these needs in the first place through the promotion of traditional representations of gender in media.

Answer 48

✩ Limited representation of women remains a persistent issue. ✩ Liberal feminists argue that although media representations of gender have become more positive and take a 'march of progress view', the media industry still faces a lag in reflecting the modern social and economic realities of women, and thus more work needs to be taken to gain full equality. ✩ This is because there has been a stagnation in the progress of women within influential positions of media ownership and leadership which have been dominated by men throughout the very start of new media. ✩ For example, the majority of media owners are males and influential positions such as media executives seem to also be held by men rather than women. ✩ Therefore, this gender disparity keeps negative stereotypical portrayals of men and women going as they fail to actually implement the positive media representations of women in the idea that women are more equal and can gain influential roles within the media industry.

Answer 49

✩ To criticise this, post modernists would say that if women aren’t actually happy with their interpretations, the media is polysemic meaning that they can create their own meanings as the media has become more fluid. ✩ For example, women can now participate with representations of their gender in media through citizen journalism, thus showing that mass media representations of media have become more positive.

Answer 50

✩ Traditional media representations of sexuality have historically been viewed through a heteronormative lens, emphasizing traditional ideas of heterosexuality as the norm. ✩ Male and female attraction is often depicted in fictional and non-fictional media, with LGBT representations being largely invisible.

Answer 51

✩ Batchelor found that when gay representations did appear in the mainstream media, they weren’t generally ‘integrated’ into plot lines, but rather gayness was part of the plot, seen as a source of anxiety, or as a target of teasing or bullying.

Answer 52

✩ The media constructs stereotypical 'signs of gayness' such as vocal tics, facial expressions, stances, and clothing in order to 'make visible the invisible'. ✩ Consequently, if a person demonstrates these signifiers in the course of their everyday behaviour, they may be labelled as 'gay' by their peers and subjected to prejudice and discrimination by others.

Answer 53

✩ Gauntlett argues that while lesbian, gay and bisexual people are still under-represented in much of the mainstream media, things are slowly changing for the better. ✩ Gauntlett suggests that tolerance of sexual diversity is slowly growing in society, and images of diverse sexual identities with which audiences are unfamiliar may assist in making the population generally more comfortable with these alternative sexual lifestyles.

Answer 54

✩ Camp – the ‘flamboyant figure of fun’ – a ‘non-threatening’ representation of gayness, lying somewhere between male and female and one of the most widely found representations ✩ Macho – An openly sexual look which exaggerates aspects of traditional masculinity, as exemplified by the village people. This is regarded by heterosexual men as threatening because it subverts traditional ideas of masculinity. For example, Gareth Thomas is a real-life example of a gay rugby player, who has broken the idea that being gay is associated with femininity because he appears to be a very masculine male in the sense that he is big, strong has muscles and is a professional rugby player. ✩ Deviant – where gay people are portrayed as evil or devious, possibly as sexual predators or who feel guilty about their sexuality. Such representations seem to construct homosexuality as morally wrong.

Answer 55

✩ Found that the LGBT community is undergoing symbolic annihilation. ✩ LGBTs are frequently consigned to comedic relief, something to laugh at and to mock in films and television dramas. UK mass media frequently and constantly demonstrated institutional anti-LGBT bias.

Answer 56

✩ The Stonewall on television programmes aimed at young people found that out of a total of 126 hours, 5 hours 43 minutes were focused on LGBT related characters or issues, and 46 minutes of this portrayed them realistically and positively. ✩ The rest of the coverage depicted gays as effeminate and bitchy figures of fun, and as predatory and promiscuous. Moreover, homophobia often went unchallenged.

Answer 57

✩ However, media has started to represent different sexualities more positively. This is because advertisers are recognising that professional gay men and women with no dependants and large disposable incomes to spend on consumer goods can benefit the profit motive. ✩ Therefore, companies have actively courted gay and lesbian consumers through gay-positive advertising and marketing campaigns. Thus, reflecting a shift in attitudes where the LGBT community was once victimised negatively in the media but now as an audience have gained lots of power.

Answer 58

✩ Marxist feminists would argue that many adverts are just 'pinkwashing'. This involves companies undertaking a concerted public relations effort to appear gay-friendly to access the pink pound (but not practicing what they preach). ✩ For example, companies change their company logo to a rainbow flag during Pride Month in an attempt to appeal to the LGBT consumers of their product and then immediately change it back to normal as soon as Pride Month is over.

Answer 59

✩ Media representations of the disabled reflect the dominant medical view that disability is dysfunctional for individual and society. ✩ Media representations also reflect society's admiration of the 'courage' shown by disabled people. ✩ Therefore, they argue that media representations of the disabled portray reality of everyday conditions of the disabled and carers.

Answer 60

✩ Alternatively, Marxists would argue that there are negative cultural attitudes towards disabled as a product of capitalism. ✩ This is due to an emphasis on work as a source of identity, status, and power in society. ✩ This means that the disabled have become an economic burden on society – which is seen as a social problem. ✩ Media helps perpetuate this negative image, as they are portrayed as being dependent on others.

Answer 61

✩ Barnes (2003) and Shakespeare (1999) impaired people are disabled by society and that mass media representations play a significant part in that process. ✩ There are three main reasons why mass media representations of disability take the form they do: ✩ 1. Medical professionals set agenda for media portrayal of disability - hierarchy for credibility, people with disabilities are unfortunate/tragic. Dominates journalists' perspectives on disability, despite these are non-disabled assumptions of experiencing impairment ✩ 2. Media representations reflect the prejudice that abled bodied people feel towards the disabled. This prejudice is the result of fear that in that the disabled represent everything that the 'normal' world most dread - personal tragedy, loss and the unknown ✩ 3. Disabled are rarely consulted by journalists because they agree with the media view that disabled people are incapable of living a 'normal' life

Answer 62

✩ Alternatively, dominant medical discourse is fragmenting in the 21st century because the disabled are politically disorganising themselves and constructing their own identities. ✩ The perspective of impairment doesn't mean unhealthy, deficient and dependent. More positive media representations, especially in sport (e.g. Paralympics) ✩ Gauntlett argues that all sociological theories need to be careful because of the diversity of media that exists in the UK. ✩ Due to the fragmentation and greater diversity in the media today, Gauntlett (2008) highlights how we all consume different types of media and so we cannot generalise representations of disabled people. For example, television representations of the disabled may be positive on the BBC but negative on Channel 5. ✩ Therefore, medical metanarratives are in decline. Media is also polysemic - open to multiple interpretations. ✩ For example, social media has also enabled disabled people to have a voice and so we're seeing a lot more positive representation.

Answer 63

✩ Barnes (1992) argues that mass media representations of disability have generally, been oppressive and negative. ✩ People with disabilities are rarely presented as people with their own identities:

Answer 64

✩ As victims – Barnes found that when people with disabilities are featured in television drama, they are three times more likely than able-bodied characters to be killed off. ✩ As villains – people with disabilities are often portrayed as criminals or monsters, e.g. villains in James Bond films often have a physical impairment. ✩ As super-cripples – Barnes notes that people with disabilities are often portrayed as having special powers or as overcoming their impairment and poverty. In Hollywood films, the impaired male body is often visually represented as a perfect physical specimen in a wheelchair. Ross notes that disability issues have to be sensational, unexpected or heroic in order to be interpreted by journalists as newsworthy and reported on. ✩ As a burden – television documentaries and news features often focus on carers rather than the people with disabilities & in need of pity and charity – Barnes claims that this stereotype has grown in popularity in recent years because of television appeals such as Children in Need. ✩ As sexually abnormal – it is assumed by media representations that people with disabilities do not have sexual feelings or that they are sexually degenerate. ✩ As incapable of participating fully in community life – Barnes calls this the stereotype of omission and notes that people with disabilities are rarely shown as integral and productive members of the community such as students, teachers or parents. ✩ As ordinary or normal – Barnes argues that the media rarely portray people with disabilities as normal people who just happen to have an impairment. They consequently fail to reflect the real, everyday experience of disability. Instead, they are usually seen as atmospheric and curio. They may be included in a drama to enhance an atmosphere of mystery. ✩ This means that disabled people are used to add a visual impact to productions. Therefore, Shakespeare would argue that such stereotypes have reinforced negative attitudes towards disabled people and their ignorance about the nature of disability.

Answer 65

✩ In recent years, there has been a noticeable increase in the representation of disabilities in pop culture. From movies and TV shows to toys and video games, disabilities are becoming more visible and normalised in mainstream media. ✩ One example of this trend is the recent introduction of Barbie dolls with disabilities. For the first time in its 60-year history, the Barbie line now features dolls with disabilities, including a doll in a wheelchair and another with a prosthetic leg. ✩ This is significant because media can make a difference by helping to normalize disability and expose people, disabled and able bodies alike, to disabled characters they can admire and relate to

Answer 66

✩ Roper suggests that mass media representations of disability on telethons can create problems for people with disabilities and suggests that telethons over-rely on ‘cute’ children who are not that representative of the range of people with disabilities in Britain. ✩ Roper argues that telethons are primarily aimed at encouraging the general public to alleviate their guilt and their relief that they are not disabled, by giving money rather than informing the general public of the facts about disability.

Answer 67

✩ Karpf suggests that there is a need for charities, but that telethons act to keep the audience in the position of givers and to keep recipients in their place as grateful and dependent. ✩ Karpf notes that telethons are about entertaining the public, rather than helping us to understand the everyday realities of what it is like to have a disability. ✩ Consequently, these media representations merely confirm social prejudices about people with disabilities, e.g. that they are dependent on the help of able-bodied people.

Answer 68

✩ The rise of disabled athletes, particularly in events like the Paralympic Games, has garnered increased attention and coverage in the news in recent years. This shift represents a significant milestone in the representation and reflects the growing recognition of disabled individuals in sports and society as a whole. ✩ By featuring disabled athletes alongside their able-bodied counterparts, news outlets are helping to promote greater visibility and acceptance of disability in sports and society.

Answer 69

Item M: There are many different ethnic groups in society. Many of these are underrepresented in positions of power, but over-represented in powerless groups in society. Some minority ethnic groups have different cultural beliefs, values and practises from those of mainstream society. The media often portray minority ethnic groups negatively.

Answer 70

✩ Pluralists say the media companies produce the media people want to watch, and if there is stereotypical material in media it is because the audience demands and expects it, reinforcing and reflecting prejudice of ethnic minorities. ✩ If the media do not give the public what they want, they become unprofitable and go out of business. ✩ For example, problematic representations such as Muslims as terrorists reflect real fears ✩ From a pluralist perspective then, newspaper are simply only acting in the interests of their readers in demanding that those in power take action to control ethnic minority groups such as by making sure that certain ethnic groups are searched more thoroughly in airports for security purposes

Answer 71

✩ Cottle suggests media representations encourage audiences to differentiate between 'us' and 'them', fostering a sense of superiority, identity construction (development of racist views such as white supremacy) and also a fear of these ‘outsider groups’

Answer 72

✩ However, one criticism of this is that many White people have not actually come into contract with Black people or Muslims meaning that they have not been able to form opinions about them. ✩ As a result, their only source of information is from the media. If this is true, then the media are not mirroring their anxieties about ethnic minorities but are instead constructing these racist ideologies on behalf of their readers.

Answer 73

✩ Hegemonic Marxists argue that negative media representations are created through the ‘white eyes’ of the media establishment and the ideology and news values of journalists. ✩ Those who control the media are likely to be White British, who create representations that create, maintain and reinforce racist stereotypes and cultural hegemony.

Answer 74

✩ Bennett (2006) argues that the interest of ethnic minorities are ignored, many minorities don't identify with British TV as media institutions are geared towards the interest of white people, because those who work in media are often Oxbridge-educated upper middle class white men.

Answer 75

✩ One example of how media is geared towards the interest of white people is through moral panics about ethnic minorities. ✩ According to Stuart Hall, ethnic minorities have been used as scapegoats for society’s larger economic problems – knife crime by black youths in London in the late 1970s was turned into a moral panic by negative reporting in the press, even though the rate of that crime was declining. ✩ In a similar way gang crime today is largely constructed in the media as a black problem, rather than a multi-ethnic phenomenon.

Answer 76

✩ Alternatively, Postmodernists say that there is no overarching portrayal of ethnicity due to the presence of conflicting representations of ethnicity ✩ New media, such as citizen journalism, provides a platform for under-represented voices, as seen in movements like the Arab Spring or #MuslimApologies. ✩ There has also been access to a variety of TV channels, like Al Jazeera (which focuses on underreported news by Western media channels), across different countries allows for diverse perspectives to be seen, potentially leading to changed views and the defeat of negative stereotypes of ethnic minorities both in life and media.

Answer 77

✩ Marxists say that as the ruling class use them as a scapegoat to disguise as a reason for the problems caused by capitalism in society to prevent disquiet from the masses and argue the media deliberately demonises minority groups in the media in order to create scapegoats and establish false class consciousness, diverting attention from real issues in society such as the Cost of Living Crisis. ✩ Moreover, negative representations create racist stereotypes which the media uses to create divisions between workers based on ethnicity.

Answer 78

✩ Evidence for this Marxist explanation is rather limited. ✩ For example. Hollingsworth found some evidence that journalists subscribed to racist views, but these account for only a small number of media professionals. For example, newspapers such as The Guardian are anti-racist.

Answer 79

✩ Immigrants are depicted as threats to jobs and welfare services due to their numbers and impact. ✩ Refugees and asylum seekers, according to ICAR, are often portrayed as threats to British social cohesion and national identity, blamed for social unrest. ✩ Muslims are frequently portrayed as the "enemy within" in media representations.

Answer 80

✩ Moor et al (2008) found that media coverage between 2000 and 2008 often focused on terrorism and differences between Muslim communities and British society, with rare portrayals of Muslims as victims of crime. They concluded there were four negative media messages about Muslims: ✩ Islam as dangerous and irrational ✩ Multiculturalism as allowing Muslims to spread their message ✩ Clash of civilisations, with Islam being presented as intolerant, oppressive and misogynistic. ✩ Islam as a threat to the British way of life, including the mention of Sharia law.

Answer 81

✩ Gauntlett, a postmodernist, emphasises caution in analysing media representations due to the diversity within the British media landscape. ✩ For instance, liberal outlets like The Guardian may offer more sympathetic representations of ethnic minorities compared to other media sources and are thus less likely to portray ethnic minorities as threats. ✩ Therefore, in society there has been a growing acceptance in the media of ethnic minorities as a normal, mainstream part of British society.

Answer 82

✩ Shah (2008) claims that that the BBC engage in ‘tokenism’ – Black and Asian actors are cast as presenters or in roles just to give the appearance of ethnic equality, regardless of whether they ‘fit’ into the role. The result is that many ethnic minorities do not identify with ethnic minority characters ✩ Bennett (2006) the interest of ethnic minorities are ignored, many minorities don't identify with British TV, media institutions are geared towards the interest of white people, because those who work in media are often Oxbridge-educated upper middle class white men

Answer 83

✩ Sir Ian Blair, the former Metropolitan police commissioner, claimed that institutionalised racism was present in the British media in the way they reported death from violent crime. ✩ He noted that Black and Asian victims of violent death did not get the same attention as White victims. ✩ It is also argued that coverage of black mistreatment in media is rare as seen in the Stephen Lawrence case – murdered by white racists.

Answer 84

✩ Narrowcasting involves targeting specific interest groups, such as black or Asian communities, by increasing airtime devoted to their interests. ✩ This approach allows for more diverse representations in media, catering to niche markets and providing views from their perspective.

Answer 85

✩ Cushion et al analysed various media sources such as Sunday newspapers and discovered that black young men were often associated with negative news values, with nearly 70% of stories related to crime, particularly violent gang crime. Black crime is portrayed as senseless or driven by gang rivalries, with little discussion of broader social and economic contexts. ✩ Back (2002) analysed inner-city race disturbances and noted that the media tends to label them as riots, collecting images of rampaging mobs in order to justify harsh police responses. There's little acknowledgment that such disturbances may stem from legitimate concerns, such as responses to police and societal racism, which warrant serious consideration.

Answer 86

✩ New media, such as citizen journalism, provides a platform for under-represented voices, as seen in movements like the Arab Spring or #MuslimApologies. ✩ Access to a variety of TV channels, like Al Jazeera (which focuses on underreported news by Western media channels), across different countries allows for diverse perspectives to be seen, potentially leading to changed views and the defeat of negative stereotypes of ethnic minorities both in life and media.

Answer 87

✩ Nairn notes that contemporary media coverage of the monarchy has focused positively on every trivial detail of their lives, turning the Queen and her family into an on-going soap opera, but with a glamour and mystique far greater than any other media personality. ✩ Members of the royal family are presented as ‘like us’ but ‘not like us’ in the sense that the Queen was an ordinary working mother doing an extraordinary job. ✩ Furthermore, mass media representations of the Queen are also aimed at reinforcing a sense of national identity, in that she is portrayed as the ultimate symbol of the nation. Consequently, the media regards royal events, such as weddings and funerals, as national events.

Answer 88

✩ Functionalists would support these representations of the monarchy in the media as it helps create a sense of social solidarity within our society such as everyone having day off school and work if the monarch had died, which according to Functionalists would help everyone see themselves as part of a wider society, which thus maintains a normal functioning stable society.

Answer 89

✩ Neo-Marxists argue that mass media representations of social class tend to celebrate hierarchy and wealth. ✩ Those who benefit from these processes, i.e. the monarchy, the upper class and the very wealthy, generally receive a positive press as celebrities who are somehow deserving of their wealth and position. ✩ The British mass media hardly ever portray the upper classes in a critical light, nor do they often draw any serious attention to inequalities in wealth and pay or the overrepresentation of public-school products in positions of power. ✩ For example, in television costume dramas such as Downton Abbey, a rosy, idealised picture is painted of the ruling elite in the sense that they seem to be honourable and cultured.

Answer 90

✩ Newman (2006) argues that the media focus very positively on the concerns of the wealthy and the privileged. ✩ He notes that the media over-focuses on consumer items such as luxury cars, costly holiday spots and fashion accessories that only the wealthy can afford. ✩ He also notes the enormous amount of print and broadcast media dedicated to daily business news and stock market quotations, despite the fact that few people in Britain own stocks and shares.

Answer 91

Pluralists argue that the representations of the rich, their lifestyles and the business world are justified because: ✩ The audience believes in a meritocratic society, and this is reflected in how the media views the UK as a meritocracy in the sense that the media portrayals of wealthy are representative of the idea that talented people deserve high rewards. ✩ These stories may motivate people to work hard as they belief that they can gain these rewards, which ultimately benefits the economy. ✩ Focus on business news reflects the audience’s view of the importance of these financial sectors for the economy.

Answer 92

✩ Pluralist: Part of the British newspaper market is specifically aimed at the middle classes and their consumption, tastes and interests, e.g. the Daily Mail. ✩ The content of newspapers such as the Daily Mail suggests that journalists believe that the middle classes of England are generally anxious about the decline of moral standards in society and that they are proud of their British identity and heritage. It is assumed that their readership feels threatened by alien influences such as the Euro, asylum seekers and terrorism. ✩ Consequently, newspapers, such as the Daily Mail, often work on behalf of the middle classes, the audience, and initiate moral panics on issues such as video nasties, paedophilia and asylum seekers. ✩ Most of the creative personnel in the media are themselves middle class. In news and current affairs, the middle classes dominate positions of authority – the ‘expert’ is almost always middle class.

Answer 93

✩ Marxists argue that some mass-media representations of the working class is to enforce the capitalist ideology. ✩ Newman argues that when news organisations focus on the working class, it is generally to label them as a problem, e.g. as welfare cheats, drug addicts or criminals. ✩ Working class groups, e.g. youth sub-cultures such as mods or skinheads, are often the subject of moral panics, whilst reporting of issues such as poverty, unemployment or single-parent families often suggests that personal inadequacy is the main cause of these social problems to distract the audience from real issues of capitalism such as the cost-of-living crisis. ✩ Ultimately, the working class are used as scapegoats in the interests of the bourgeoisie.

Answer 94

✩ Curran and Seaton (2003) note that newspapers aimed at working class audiences assume that they are uninterested in serious analysis of politics and society. Political debate is often reduced simplistically to conflict between personalities. ✩ The content of newspapers such as The Sun and the Daily Star assumes that such audiences want to read about celebrity gossip and lifestyles, trivial human-interest stories and sport.

Answer 95

✩ McKendrick et al. (2008) studied a week’s output of mainstream media in 2007 and concluded that coverage of poverty is small in British media, in that the causes and consequences of poverty were very rarely explored across the news, documentaries or drama. ✩ Dramas such as Shameless presented a sanitised picture of poverty, despite featuring characters who were economically deprived, whilst family issue-based programmes such as The Jeremy Kyle Show treated poverty as an aspect of entertainment. Cohen notes that the media often fails to see the connection between poverty and wealth.

Answer 96

✩ Examined media generated moral panics alleged welfare abuse. During their six-month content analysis-based study, they found that welfare issues, as such, didn't make the news ✩ It was only seen as important when linked with other issues e.g. crime, fraud, sex ✩ Found that the poor was shown as either deserving or undeserving. Argued that the media demonises certain sections of the "underclass" ✩ This was contributed towards legitimising welfare cutbacks by the state

Answer 97

✩ However, recent shifts, especially with the rise of digital media, have led to increased scrutiny of the upper class, including politicians and the monarchy. ✩ The rejection of meta-narratives, including those related to social class, is observed, with individuals challenging media sources and denouncing them as spreading false narratives or fake news based on individual worldviews through citizen journalism.

Answer 98

✩ Hegemony in ownership results in middle class being overrepresented in media. Socio-economic status of journalists who tend to be overwhelmingly White, middle-class and male. ✩ The GUMG argues that these journalists and broadcasters tend to believe in ‘middle-of-the-road' consensus views & ideas, which are unthreatening and believe to appeal to many of their viewers and readers, who they think are also middle-class and educated. ✩ This means anyone who believes in ideas outside of this media ‘consensuses are viewed as ‘extremist’ and not invited to contribute their opinions in media. Also, alternative views are often ridiculed by journalists. ✩ As a result of this journalistic consensus, the media filter which issues should be discussed by society, and which centre around the middle class and filter out issues that they believe are not necessary such as Cost of Living Crisis as it does not affect them as greatly. This is called agenda setting.

Answer 99

✩ Alternatively, Pluralists would argue that this is what tabloid newspapers readers want as there have been a number of sales of these newspapers. ✩ For example, in 2013, under 13.5 million people read the Sun – showing that the media content which negatively portray the working class reflects the interests and beliefs of the audience.

Answer 100

✩ As victims of horrendous crimes – some critics of the media have suggested that White children who are victims of crime get more media attention than adults or children from ethnic minority backgrounds. ✩ As cute – this is a common stereotype found in television commercials for baby products or toilet rolls. ✩ As little devils – another common stereotype especially found in drama and comedy, e.g. Bart Simpson. ✩ As brilliant – perhaps as child prodigies or as heroes for saving the life of an adult. ✩ As brave little angels – suffering from a long-term terminal disease or disability. ✩ As accessories – stories about celebrities such as Madonna, Angelina Jolie or the Beckhams may focus on how their children humanise them. ✩ As modern – the media may focus on how children ‘these days’ know so much more ‘at their age’ than previous generations of children.

Answer 101

✩ One negative stereotype of children is the common phrase ‘Kids these days’ ✩ Kids are corrupted and exposed to more information/ adult world, helpless --> links to Postman's view that 'childhood is disappearing.'

Answer 102

✩ Mass media is an essential part of socialisation as it equips children with the appropriate norms and values to become functional members of society. ✩ Once children have been instilled with this shared culture, media representations engage in boundary maintenance, which helps create social solidity.

Answer 103

✩ Childhood has been socially constructed in Western society to be a period of dependency, this could be linked to the focus on compulsory education now and that children are economic liabilities. ✩ This means that as the media is controlled by adults, this group have limited ability to represent themselves in the media.

Answer 104

✩ Chandler (2006) suggests pester power means companies appeal to children in order to sell products to their parent ✩ As active consumers – television commercials portray children as having a consumer appetite for toys and games. Some family sociologists note that this has led to the emergence of a new family pressure ✩ This is called ‘pester power’, the power of children to train or manipulate their parents to spend money on consumer goods that will increase the children’s status in the eyes of their peers.

Answer 105

✩ Some critics have argued that media representations of childhood are becoming problematic because the media is increasingly guilty of over-sexualising childhood especially girls’ childhood. ✩ Marxist Feminists would argue that media representations make young girls also have to worry about their appearance and weight --> Marxist feminists (cosmetic ads and false needs)

Answer 106

✩ Rebellious, irresponsible, selfish, social problems, often depicted in the context of crime and deviance such as drugs, alcohol and anti-social behaviour.

Answer 107

✩ The media has a significant impact on young people’s lifestyles and consumption patterns. ✩ Media outlets not only promote products and brands, but also values, ideas and lifestyle preferences that shape young people’s consumption habits and desires.

Answer 108

✩ Positive self-representations ✩ There is an increase in youth-led media such as the UK Youth and Media Trust and positive events like the Teen Choice Awards that recognise excellent young people. ✩ Young people utilise New Media to challenge ‘traditional’ and ‘adult-gazed’ views of them that derive from traditional media such as newspapers.

Answer 109

✩ MORI (2005) found 57% of stories about young people were negative in local and national press. ✩ Cohen (2002) suggests young people are relatively powerless so are easy to blame for society’s ills and used as scapegoats to distract from real issues as a result of capitalism such as the Cost-of-living Crisis. ✩ Youth are often portrayed by news media as a social problem, as immoral or anti-authority and consequently constructed as folk devils as part of a moral panic. ✩ Media news values then sensationalise and exaggerate occasional deviance to make profit.

Answer 110

✩ There is evidence that representations of youth in new media is positive and celebratory because most new media content today is actually constructed by the young for consumption of other young people --> Citizen Journalism.

Answer 111

✩ Most journalists subscribe to a consensus view of society; placing older people at the top of the hierarchy with credibility. ✩ The agenda for the reporting of youth is set by older people who control the media and is thus negative.

Answer 112

✩ Media representations reflect social reality – young people commit more crime and deviance than any other social group. ✩ Criminal behaviour is newsworthy; it seems the viewership wants to read about it and so the media acts in the interests of this audience for profit, as evident in the high sales of newspapers.

Answer 113

✩ Szmigin and Carrigan (2000) suggest advertisers are wary of using elderly people in adverts in case they alienate younger audiences. This means they are underrepresented in clothing and cosmetics, yet overrepresented in food, drink and financial services ads. ✩ Age Concern (2000) only 7% of the media’s content accounted for the elderly despite people 65+ accounting for 21% of the population, this shows symbolic annihilation.

Answer 114

✩ However, recent research suggests that media producers may be gradually reinventing how they deal with the elderly, especially as they realise that this group may have disposable incomes (Grey Pound), i.e. extra money to spend on consumer goods. ✩ For example, some advertisements such as Dove portray the elderly as ‘golden agers’ who are active, alert and healthy, or advertise packaged holidays with an older model.

Answer 115

✩ Research suggests on the other hand that this positive stereotype may be unrealistic because it does not reflect the wide range of experiences that people have as they age such as poverty.

Answer 116

✩ Due to the ageing population, they are increasingly influential in the media gaze. ✩ Newman (2006) Upper/ middle class elderly people (mainly men) are often portrayed as being in leadership positions or elite occupations. ✩ As those who own, control and work in the media also age, it is likely their interests will be reflected in new and different representations of the elderly.

Answer 117

✩ Audience is free to choose how they want to interpret media messages ✩ Personal identity is flexible and is expressed and invented by choosing from the variety of lifestyles on offer through the media. ✩ Philo argues that postmodernists see media content as producing multiple definitions of reality each of which have the same degree of importance as the other.  ✩ Media is polysemic - meaning it has many different views that can be interpreted differently from the audience. ✩ In fact, the audience can reject meta-narratives and make their own through citizen journalism ✩ Postmodernists believe that there is no such thing as absolute truth of media messages, all these reactions and interpretations have a relative value - can be seen differently by others.

Answer 118

✩ Existence of different news channels such as Al Jazeera ✩ Social media users can put fourth their own idealised perspective of their lives on Instagram and how they view their personal identity such having a fun life going on holiday.

Answer 119

✩ Media representation of ethnicity, class, age and gender is still stereotypical, not everyone has equal access to media – very ethnocentric and westernised – not everyone can express themselves the way they want to. ✩ Not everyone has different interpretations; a lot of people have same interpretations because media is creating moral panics meaning there is not much diversity in media – similar beliefs.

Answer 120

✩ Media content does not have an influence on the audience as personal relationships are dominated by ‘opinion leaders’ ✩ These are people of influence whom others in the network look up to and listen to. ✩ These people usually have strong ideas about a range of matters. Moreover, these opinion leaders expose themselves to different types of media and form an opinion on their content. ✩ Those who respect the opinion leader internalise their interpretation of that content and then pass it on to other members of the social circle. ✩ Consequently, media audiences are not directly influenced by the media. Rather, they choose to adopt a particular opinion, attitude and way of behaving after negotiation and discussion with an opinion leader. ✩ The audience is, therefore, not passive, but active.

Answer 121

✩ For example, social media influencers are an example of an opinion leader such as Andrew Tate ✩ He has been able to convince his audience that society should follow traditional gender roles as he advocates for what he perceives as ‘assertive masculinity’. ✩ A YouGov study shows that almost ¼ of 13-15 boys have a positive view of Andrew Tate.

Answer 122

✩ People who may be most at risk of being influenced by the media may be socially isolated individuals who are not members of any social network and so do not have access to an opinion leader who might help interpret media content in a healthy way (a prominent example of this is Shamima Begum) ✩ This can have negative connotations as media can help create an ideological echo chamber, making one more susceptible to extremist ideologies as they are lured into these extremists' beliefs that are reinforced over time.

Answer 123

✩ Selective exposure – the audience must choose to view, read or listen to the content of specific media. However, what the audience chooses depends upon on their interests, social class etc. ✩ Selective perception – the audience may not accept the message; some people may take notice of some media content but decide to reject or ignore others. ✩ Selective retention – the messages have to ‘stick’ in the mind of those who have accessed the media content to have an effect on the audience. However, research indicates that most people have a tendency to remember only the things they broadly agree with. Therefore, these three filters involve a degree of active choice in the audience, challenging the view that we react to media in similar ways.

Answer 124

Example for selective exposure: ✩ For example, a lot of horror movies are aimed at teenage audience and 18+ movies deny audiences such as children entry to watch these films at a cinema. Research support for selective perception: ✩ Festinger supports this arguing that People seek out media that confirm their existing attitudes and views of the world. Research support for selective retention: ✩ Postman argued that we now live in a three minute culture: the attention span of the average member of society is only three minutes or less and this is reflected in the existence of media platforms with reels such as YouTube shorts that only last for 30 seconds to help audiences retain as much information as possible before they lose focus or forget it.

Answer 125

✩ Marxists: choice is merely illusion, while some may say that we have choice over the products we consume; the bourgeoisie ultimately control the media. ✩ For example, in a consumeristic society, they launch ads targeted at different social groups for profit; who buy into these false needs presented by the ruling class. ✩ Selective retention is actually due to mediational factors which determine whether a behaviour is performed, according to the social learning theory. ✩ For example, the reason why someone may retain a behaviour is due to seeing another individual being praised for their positive behaviour, motivating them to remember this behaviour to replicate this in the future (vicarious reinforcement).

Answer 126

✩ Refers to how the media injects their own beliefs, views and ideology onto the audience. This model sees the audience as a ‘homogeneous mass’ (all the same), as passive and believing what they see in the media without questioning the content. It also states that this effect on people’s behaviours is direct and immediate. ✩ For example, it suggests that children and teenagers are vulnerable to media content because they are still being socialised and are thus easily influenced.

Answer 127

✩ Dines argued that men’s consumption of pornography may be harmful in terms of encouraging negative attitudes towards women – sexualising, objectifying them and encouraging violence against women because it portrays unrealistic views in what should happen in a relationship.

Answer 128

✩ Marcuse argued that the media transmitted a mass culture which directly injected into the hearts and mind of the population which have made the audience more vulnerable to ruling class propaganda. ✩ They suggest that the media acts as a form of social control and manipulates the masses into acceptance of the ruling class ideology acting as an ideological state apparatus to keep the public under false class consciousness.

Answer 129

✩ Functionalists see the hypodermic syringe effects as positive because they believe that mass media is not only an important part of socialisation, but it is also responsible for boundary maintenance – reinforcing the norms and values of society and thus the belief that young people are more impressionable appears to work in to the benefit of society.

Answer 130

✩ Bobo Doll Experiment: Bandura et al recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards a Bobo (whether real, film, or cartoon). The adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it. ✩ All the children (including the control group) were subjected to “mild aggression arousal --> purposefully put in a room full of toys that were attractive that were taken away to make them angry. ✩ When these children were later observed playing with various toys, including a Bobo doll, they behaved much more aggressively towards the doll and the other toys than those who had observed a non-aggressive adult. ✩ This demonstrated that media-violence can ‘cause’ children to act more aggressively when given the opportunity to do so.

Answer 131

✩ Convinces children that in some social situations, the normal rules that govern conflict can be suspended; discussion and negotiation can be replaced instead with violence. ✩ This is because many contemporary films have led to copycat violence as young people, start to believe violent acts are acceptable ✩ Children see fictional characters such as superheroes resort to violence suffer no negative consequence and in fact have positive consequences such as glory for using their violence to ‘save the world’, this positively reinforces the child’s violent behaviours.

Answer 132

✩ Desensitisation - Newson argued that children and teenagers are subjected to thousands of images of killings. ✩ She suggested that such prolonged exposure to media violence may have a ‘drip-drip’ effect on young people over the course of their childhood and becomes desensitised to violence - socialised into thinking violent behaviour is normal. ✩ Johnson et al found that a significant relationship between the amount of time spent watching TV during their respondents’ teenage years and aggressive behaviours as young adults.

Answer 133

✩ Fesbach and Sanger found that screen violence can actually provide a safe outlet for people’s aggressive tendencies, this is known as Catharsis. ✩ For example, watching an exciting film releases aggressive energy into safe outlets as the viewers immerse themselves into action. This is further supported by an alternative Functionalist perspective. ✩ Polsky puts forth the idea of a relatively harmless way for an individual to express their discontent coining the term ‘Safety Valve’ ✩ For example, pornography prevents people from committing acts such as adultery or sex crimes in order to fulfil their sexual needs and desires. ✩ This is significant as it keeps society stable as sexual desires are channelled in a safe manner, and thus acts as a ‘safety valve’ because it keeps people safe in society – thus it seems the hypodermic syringe model reduces the immediate threat that unfulfilled sexual desires could cause such as sexual assaults.

Answer 134

✩ Firstly, this model may have been true in the 1940s when the media was relatively new and audiences less literate, but in today’s new media age, audiences are more likely to criticise what they see rather than just believing it. ✩ Moreover, some sociologists believe that children are not as vulnerable as the hypodermic syringe model implies, e.g. research indicates that most children can distinguish between fictional/cartoon violence and real violence from a very early age, and generally know that it should not be imitated.

Answer 135

✩ The hypodermic syringe studies have been criticised for their methodological issues. Bandura’s research which investigated the relationship between media and violence was a laboratory experiment ✩ This had high control meaning that we can establish a cause-and-effect relationship between the independent variable (whether the model acts aggressively or not) and DV (the aggression that the kids show to toys such as the Bobo Doll) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ✩ However, findings of the are questionable as the children may be subject to demand characteristics or Hawthorne effect as they do not behave naturally under laboratory conditions as they would do in real life. ✩ For example, it fails to take into consideration that children’s media habits are controlled by parents ✩ This means that while his experiment is high in internal validity, it is low in external validity, as it cannot be generalised to real-life situations.

Media - Finalised Flashcards

(172 cards)