Farm urinary

Question 1

Normal cow urinalysis?

Answer 1

SG 1.020-1.045
pH normally alkaline
Protein - usually trace only
Glucose - usually trace

Question 2

Clinical signs of urinary disease?

Answer 2

Abdominal pain - pyelonephritis, calculi
Dysuria - pyelonephritis, calculi, cystitis, (vaginitis)
Haematuria +/- pus +/- calculi
Polyuria - DM (post FMD), diabetes inspires, idiopathic (calves)
Anuria - construction by calculi
Oliguria - prerenal, renal or post renal
Proteinuria - renal amyloidosis - breed

Question 3

Causes of haematuria?

Answer 3

Pyelonephritis (+pus)
Cystitis
Urolithiasis
Enzootic haematuria
Acute bracken poisoning
Toxic nephrosis (acorn)
Glomerulonephritis, renal infarction etc

Question 4

Causes of haemoglobinuria?

Answer 4

Babesiosis (red water)
Post parturient haemoglobinuria
Bacillary haemoglobinuria (Clostridium haemoliticum)

Question 5

What is hypospadia?

Answer 5

Failure of closure of male urethra
Usually fatten fine
Scalding - welfare issue, daily hosing

Question 6

Pyelonephritis - Most common cause in cows? Which cows? Sings? Treatment?

Answer 6

Corynebacterium renale and E.coli
Usually sporadic
More common in suckler cows - venereal spread by natural service?
Secondary to trauma e.g. dystocia
Signs:
- chronic weight loss
- +/- mild pyrexia
- appetite usually ok
- dysuria
- blood and pus in urine (pus on vulval hairs)
- per rectum exam: swollen painful kidney, bladder and ureteral involvement and thickening
Treatment:
- long course antibiotics
- C renal sensitive to most (penicillins, oxytetracycline)
- E.coli isn’t (amoxicillin/clavulonic acid)
1/3 get better, 1/3 recur, 1/3 never get better

Question 7

Cystitis - When seen? Signs? Treatment?

Answer 7

Often associated with pyelonephritis
Secondary to dystocia - ascending infection
Similar signs to pyelonephritis:
- chronic weight loss
- +/- mild pyrexia
- appetite usually ok
- dysuria
- blood and pus in urine (pus on vulval hairs)
- per rectum exam: swollen painful kidney, bladder and ureteral involvement and thickening
- straining more pronounced
Treatment:
- long course antibiotics
- organism and sensitivity less predictable than pyelonephritis

Question 8

What is amyloidosis? Signs?

Answer 8

Deposition of amyloid and Ab/Ag complexes
Secondary to other chronic infections (can be primary)
Signs:
- off food and ill
- profuse diarrhoea
- generalised s/c oedema
- PUPD
- proteinuria
- low plasma albumin
- pale swollen kidneys

Question 9

What is enzootic haematuria? Causes? Signs?

Answer 9

Haemangiomata in bladder
Associated with long term ingestion of bracken
Older cows
Other causes - “tear pastures”, high molybdenum
Blood clots in urine
Tumours in guts - SCC

Question 10

What specific conditions does bracken cause in cattle, horses and sheep?

Answer 10

Contains a thiamine - toxic in horses (and pigs - heart enlargement?) but no effect in ruminants
Bright blindness - sheep retinal atrophy
Enzootic haematuria - long term ingestion
Gut tumours - sheep and cattle, long term ingestion
Bladder wall tumours
Haemorrhagic syndrome (blood in faeces, urine and haemorrhages on mucous membranes)

Question 11

General clinical signs of bracken poisoning?

Answer 11

Bone marrow toxicity
Pancytopenia and thrombocytopenia
Petechiae in mouth, conjunctiva, vulva etc
S/C bruising
Blood clots - nose, faeces
Pyrexia
Depression
Weakness
Anorexia
Diarrhoea (bloody)
Death

Question 12

What causes toxic nephrosis in cattle? Clinical signs? Diagnosis? Treatment?

Answer 12

Oak (acorn) poisoning (phenols and tannins) on pastures 3-5d after autumn storms
Tannins in acorns cause kidney damage
Sudden death
Anorexia, depression, bloat due to luminal stasis
Colic
Anorexia
Weight loss
Ascites
Oedema
Haematuria
Constipation and straining, progressing to fetid black tarry diarrhoea
Bloods - raised urea and creatinine, raised liver enzymes
PME - GIT ulceration and haemorrhage, nephritis, liver degeneration
Death in 4-7d despite supportive treatment?
Pigs more resistant

Question 13

What causes Bacillary haemoglobinuria? Signs? Prevention?

Answer 13

Uncommon - wet, high pH pastures in SW
Clostridium haemolyticum - toxins
In soil and dormant in liver
Migrating fluke - trigger spores
Pyrexia, jaundice, anaemia, oedema, Hburia
Fatal
Vaccinate (Black disease), fluke control

Question 14

What causes red water? Spread? Signs? Which animals? When? Clinical signs?

Answer 14

Babesia divergens in UK
Tick borne - Ixodes ricinus, Haemaphyllis punctata
Also trans ovarian transmission
Clinical signs in older non immune animals
Premunity results from infection when young - inverse age immunity
Spring and autumn rise
Rented grazing = novel exposure
Signs:
- pyrexia
- anaemia and Hburia “port wine urine”
- diarrhoea
- later constipation, low temperature, anaemia, jaundice

Question 15

Diagnosis and treatment of babesiosis/red water? Immunity?

Answer 15

Blood smear - capillary blood from ear, parasites in RBC, evidence of anaemia
ELISA to assess herd exposure
Treatment:
- imidocarb licensed (213d meat, 21d milk withhold)
- 1ml/100kg curative
- 2.5ml/100kg
- toxic at 1.75 x dose, death at 5 x dose
- preventative immunity depends on adequate challenge by infected ticks during treatment period
- supportive therapy: blood transfusion, fluids

Question 16

Post parturient haemoglobinuria - seen in which animals? When? Cause? Clinical signs? Treatment?

Answer 16

Uncommon - older high yielding dairy cows
Sporadic cases 1-4 weeks after calving?
Cause:
- low phosphorous diet
- kale, rape, turnips etc
Signs:
- sudden onset
- hamoglobinuria
- pallor, jaundice
- collapse, dyspnoea
- death
Treatment:
- guarded prognosis
- phosphorous (Boston injection)
- blood transfusion

Question 17

How to do a blood transfusion for a cow?

Answer 17

One transfusion is safe without cross matching
Sodium nitrate (anti-coagulant) - 10ml of 3.85% solution per 100ml blood
Choke-Rope around neck to raise jugular
Jugular trochar or 10-12G catheter to collect
5L blood
Collect in Winchester bottle or empty wormer bottle

Question 18

Aetiology and diagnosis of bracken poisoning in farm animals?

Answer 18

Cyanogenic glycoside, thiaminases

History, clinical signs, blood results

Question 19

Urolithiasis - Which animals? What are the calculi usually?

Answer 19

2-4mo ram lambs
Mature goats castrated in first few days of life
Bull beef calves
Usually sporadic but can have “outbreaks”
Usually Calcium/magnesium ammonium phosphate

Question 20

What is urolithiasis associated with in farm animals?

Answer 20

Ca:P imbalance in diet
High concentrate diet
Water deprivation
Interactions like forage quality changing concentrate intake
History of diet change in mature animals
Inappropriate material used in feeds - e.g. pig nuts as source of mineral in goat mix

Question 21

Signs of urolithiasis?

Answer 21

Restlessness
Abdominal pain (kicking) and straining (hiccups)
Dysuria or anuria - dry floor
Preputial crystals/sand
Progressive til urethra and/or bladder ruptures
Bladder rupture - initially brighter, high urea and creatinine in abdominal fluid, S/C oedema - water belly

Question 22

Diagnosis of urolithiasis/urethral/bladder rupture?

Answer 22

Abdominal palpation:
- distended bladder
- free fluid wave
- s/c fluid: pitting, colour of skin (location indicates site of rupture)
Hair of ventral abdomen - "sand around preputial orifice
Examine penis (exteriorise):
- if cannot exteriorise then cut down into middle of prepuce
Radiography
US better:
- s/c tissue
- free fluid in abdomen
- bladder
- kidney: cortex/medulla reatio
Abdominocentesis - s/c guided, sample s/c fluid too
Palpate urethra per rectum - if calculi palpable, no point doing anything more distal 
Blood sample:
- urea, creatinine
- potassium
- PCV
- TP

Question 23

Treatment of urolithiasis?

Answer 23

Relaxants (buscopan or xylazine) always used but of little use - xylazine will either make better if flushes blockage or will make worse as diuresis
Casualty slaughter - unlikely to pass inspection as uraemic
Surgery:
- start by exteriorising end of penis (in castrated goat: sedate, LA, forceps into prepuce, cut down midway to exteriorise)
- palpate to feel if calculi
- maybe catheterise urethra (carved catheter and guide)
- percutaneous bladder cathetarisation: care with entrapping viscera
- if bladder ruptured and cannot be cathetarised: GA, laparotomy, repair bladder, or tube cystotomy
- flush with 10% Walpole’s solution in saline

Question 24

How to do a urethrostomy?

Answer 24

Standing and epidural anaesthesia
Mid line incision from 4” below anus in cattle
Identify penis & blunt dissect
Transect penis distally to leave a 4” proximal stump
Suture stump to skin - not through urethra
Leave indwelling catheter for a few days
Do NOT allow to scab over!

Question 25

What to do if water belly?

Answer 25

Incise skin in multiple sites to produce drainage
Necrosis, slough off and re-epithelialise
Worse if a lot of S/C fat
Bath/spray with salt water regularly
Antibiotic cover? House? Fly treatment?
Welfare

Question 26

Prevention of recurrence of urolithiasis?

Answer 26

Urinary acidification - ammonium chloride, acid sodium phosphate
Check diet:
- check correct mixing
- investigate sources of minerals in course mixes
- no added Mg
- Calcium chloride or ammonium chloride in lamb creep
- Ca:P 1.2-2:1
- 1% NaCl in diet, salt blocks? to increase drinking
- check/improve access to water

Question 27

1 week old calf with 40C temp, blind, extended neck?

Answer 27

Meningitis - e.g. E.coli, Salmonella
Check for infected umbilicus, joints
Check colostrum - TP
Check farm hygiene
Treat with antibiotics (tetracycline), NSAIDs/steroids

Question 28

6 month old calf head pressing, blind, temp 39.1C, one in group, recently weaned and then housed after being out at pasture?

Answer 28

Normal temp
CCN
Give vitamin B1

Question 29

Recently calved dairy cow, obsessively licking wall, unsteady walking, BCS 3.5?

Answer 29

Nervous ketosis
Test BHOB
Treat with propylene glycol, steroids, glucose

Question 30

4yo suckler, calved 2 months out at pasture in May, down unable to stand, convulsing, muscle fasciculations?

Answer 30

Hypomagnesaemia (grass staggers)
MgSO4
Prevent with Mg licks, boluses, MgO dressing on pasture, MgCl in water

Question 31

Bulling heifer, tongue out, facial paralysis with drooling and ear down on one side, 41C temp, housed with 30 others and fed big bale silage?

Answer 31

Brainstem
Listeriosis
Treat with penicillin
NSAIDs
Remove silage 
Silage analysis

Question 32

2 weeks after difficult calving, beef cow, reluctant to move, slightly bloated, tail raised, third eyelid prolapsed, unusual gait with stiff legs

Answer 32

Tetanus
Antitoxin and toxoid
Antibiotics

Question 33

How to differentiate between a neurological and orthopaedic limb problem?

Answer 33

Limbs carried = orthopaedic
Limbs dragged = neurological
Shortened step = orthopaedic
Increased step length = neurological

Question 34

Which cortical neuromuscular suspicions must you notify the APHA about?

Answer 34

Lead poisoning
Pseudorabies (Aujesky’s)
Rabies
BSE

Question 35

Meningitis

Answer 35

Calves around 1wo that have not had enough colostrum
Extension of local infection (sinusitis) or haematogenous - look for another lesion
Diarrhoea
Fever
Anorexia
Stiff neck
Hyperaesthesia

Question 36

What are the names for castrated bulls and rams?

Answer 36

Castrated bull = steer

Castrated ram = wether

Question 37

When do bulls and rams become fertile?

Answer 37

Bulls: 7 months
Rams: 4-6 months

Question 38

Reasons for and against castration of rams/bulls?

Answer 38

For:
- safer to handle and manage
- prevent unwanted pregnancies
- poss better carcass quality: increased fat deposition, taint avoided, reduced chance of dark cutting meat
- consumer pressure and tradition
Against:
- welfare: pain, stress, haemorrhage
- reduced growth rates
- growth setback at time of castration (earlier the better?)
- leaner carcass if entire (better killing out %)

Question 39

When are bull beef slaughtered?

Answer 39

12-15 months old (fattened intensively)

Question 40

What are the legal ages and methods for castration of calves and lambs?

Answer 40

First 7 days for both: rubber rings without local by a competent stock keeper
0-2 months in calves, 0-3 months in lambs: trained lay person aged 16+, no analgesia required
Older than 2 months in calves, older than 3 months in lambs: veterinary surgeon, local anaesthetic required

Question 41

Comparison of castration at a younger or older age?

Answer 41

Younger:

• less tress?
• easier and safer
• less risk to animal
• less growth setback
• easier in some management systems e.g. indoor lambing

Older:

• more stressful?/
• increased danger to operator
• increased risk to animal
• better carcass quality?
• longer period of high growth rate
• easier in some management systems e.g. suckler calves

Question 42

Methods of castration?

Answer 42

Rubber rings (<1wo)
Bloodless castration “Burdizzo”
Open castration “knife”
Immuno-castration against LH - future?

Question 43

Methods of local anaesthesia for castration? Which drug?

Answer 43

Infiltration: spermatic cord +/- subcutaneously into scrotum +/- into testes
Procaine 5% + adrenaline:
- licensed in cattle (not sheep)
- cheap
- takes 10-15 min onset and lasts 45-90 mins
Other option is epidural anaesthesia:
- suitable for bulls or very large calves
- 20 min time delay
- risk of recumbency
- sedation - optional extra for big beasts
Use of NSAIDs - should be advocated by vet for analgesia

Question 44

Rubber ring castration: which animals? Anaesthesia? Risks?

Answer 44

Common in lambs, sometimes calves
Only if <1wo
Usually no anaesthesia so painful
Stress of castration - interference with colostrum intake, risk of watery mouth etc
Ensure both testicles included
New rings and clean equipment - tetanus risk otherwise
Usually done by farmer

Question 45

Burdizzo (bloodless castration): which animals? Risks? Benefits? Anaesthesia? What to make sure to do?

Answer 45

Ideally young calves and lambs only
Increased risk of failure in older animals
Can be difficult in very small testicules
Preferential to surgical in dirtier conditions
No chance of haemorrhage
Local analgesia - risk of introducing infection but law if >2/3 months
Clamp both sides - do not clamp across scrotum
Do not include urethra
Check in 4-6 weeks for failures

Question 46

Open castration (knife): Which animals? Benefits? Risks? Method?

Answer 46

Suitable for any age
Benefits:
- No uncertainty
- Less setback?
- Less pain in larger beasts?
Risks:
- hameorrhage (ensure haemostasis, if happens pack with cotton wool if not too severe, identify spermatic cord and ligate)
- herniation (check hernia not present)
- infection/abscess at wound site (ensure adequate drainage, clean area to go after)
- tetanus (vaccinate)
- gut tie (associated with recoil of spermatic cord into abdomen, need laparotomy or slaughter if happens)
Method:
- restrain well in crush
- anaesthesia - wait 10 mins
- slit the scrotum and for smaller calves twist and pull to break spermatic cord, in larger calves use emasculators to crush and cut the cord
- U shaped incision ensures drainage
- antibiotics? LA penicillin or oxytetracycline

Question 47

Equipment needed for open castration?

Answer 47

Scalpel and No 22 blade
Emasculators - serra pattern
Newberry knife - slits scrotum with adequate U shaped incision = safer, quicker and better than scalpel
Bucket of antiseptic, gloves and cotton wool

Question 48

Why disbud/dehorn? When?

Answer 48

Safety to farmer and other animals
Younger the better:
- less stress for animal and operator (easier to handle)
- only do healthy animals
- higher chance of 100% success
Avoid time of year with flies if possible

Question 49

Restraint options for disbudding/dehorning?

Answer 49

Baby calves: hold calf in corner, dehorning crate
Older calves: harder to hold, dehorning crate
Adults: cattle crush

Question 50

Dehorning paste: When can be used? What is it? What must be done? Welfare

Answer 50

First day of life (licensed <7do, illegal if >7do)
Caustic - 42.7% w/w odium hydroxide
Ensure not licked off
Separate from cow for 1-2h
1.5h of dry weather
Protect site? gaffer tape
Code of welfare recommends against use of chemical disbudding

Question 51

What anaesthesia is used for disbudding/dehorning?

Answer 51

ILLEGAL TO DISBUD OR DEHORN WITHOUT ANAESTHETIC UNLESS USING CHEMICAL DISBUDDER

Cornual branch of lachrymal nerve
3-10ml local anaesthetic (age and size)
Check not in artery or vein
Older cattle may also need to block cornual branch of cervical nerve

Question 52

How to disbud baby calves? What if slightly older?

Answer 52

Restrain
Inject local
Clip hair and identify horn bud
Burn hair/horn junction
Rotating action
Aim for a clear copper ring

If slightly older:

• consider xylazine to sedate (vet only)
• cut bud first with foot clippers

Question 53

How to dehorn older animals/adults?

Answer 53

Stressful!
Ensure good restraint
Ensure good local analgesia: 10ml per side, may need extra block
Consider xylazine to sedate
Shears/wire/saw
Cut at hair/horn junction
Control haemorrhage:
- grasp vessel with artery forceps, twist and pull, vessel on craniotomy-ventral aspect
- cauterise with hot iron
- if use wire will cauterise as you cut

Question 54

Aftercare for all disbudding/dehorning?

Answer 54

NSAIDs - meloxicam approved

Check for haemorrhage and induction (sinusitis if enter sinuses) in older animals

Question 55

Treatment of sinusitis following dehorning?

Answer 55

Til head to drain
Hosepipe in hole to flush out
Antibiotic? penicillin, pen/strep

Question 56

Risks of disbudding/dehorning?

Answer 56

Fractured skulls - shears, too much pressure with disbudder, sharp disbudder
Brain trauma/damage - sharp disbudder, too hot disbudder

Question 57

Goat disbudding?

Answer 57

<7do
Very large horn buds/germinal area
Ideally need larger diameter disbudding iron
Thin skulls
Require sedation/GA by law in UK
No licensed drugs!

Question 58

Nerve blocks for adult goat dehorning?

Answer 58

Horns supplied by cornual branches of both lacrimal and infratrochlear nerves
Block cornual branch of lacrimal: midway between lateral canthus and lateral horn base (2-3ml)
Block cornual branch of infratrochlear: midway between medial canthus and medial horn base