SA Exotics Flashcards
How to tell the gender of a reptile: Lizards? Snakes? Chelonia?
Lizards - hemipenile bulge, femoral pores, sexual dimorphism
Snakes - popping, probing, pinging
Chelonia - tail length, plastron concavity, width of anal scutes, carapacial shape, palpation of intromittent organ on ventral wall of cloaca
How to tell the gender of a bird?
Behaviour/egg laying - song/voice Sexual dimorphism - plumage, feather shape, eye colour Vent sexing DNA sexing - blood feather, blood Endoscopy Radiography?
How to tell the gender of a ferret?
Size
Genito-anal distance - further in males
Extrude penis/palpate testicles
Presence of os penis
How to tell the gender of a rabbit?
Buck - wider genitoanal distance, circular shaped penis with rounded tip
Doe = very short genitoanal distance, vulva has slit and pointed shape
Teat differences
How to tell the gender of a rodent?
Testicles
Males - longer genito-anal distance
Hamster - scent gland of males
What is UV light needed for in birds and reptiles?
Calcium metabolism
Vision in birds
UVA - affects behaviour
UVB - vitamin D production
Where is the heart positioned in ferrets?
Caudally - 6-9/10th rib spaces
Where is the heart found in snakes?
20-33% STV length
Normal temperature ranges for birds, small furries and hedgehogs?
Birds: 40-42C
Small furries: 36.5-40C
Hedgehog: 35-37C
Assessing hydration of birds and reptiles?
Weight loss Skin tenting less reliable in birds and difficult to assess in reptiles as less elastic (lateral body wall for squamates) Mucous membranes Saliva viscosity PCV Total solids Birds only: - glazed or sunken eyes - thick pasty urates - cold extremities - basilic vein refill time < 1-2s - albumin Reptiles only: - constipation/impaction - CRT (palatine vessel) - sodium/chloride - plasma osmolarity elevations
Maintenance fluid requirements for exotic mammals, birds and reptiles? Over how long should you replace fluid deficits?
Mammals: 75-100ml/kg/day
Birds: 50ml/kg/day
Reptiles: 10-30ml/kg/day
Replace deficits over 24-48 hours for mammals and birds, 48-96 hours for reptiles
What is hyaluronidase?
Enzyme that breaks down collagens in subcutaneous space - improves rate of s/c absorption of fluids
Limitations for giving oral fluids to exotics?
Respiratory distress - don't give Seizures Recumbency Aspiration risk GI stasis/ileus/obstruction
Limitations of S/C fluids for exotics?
Mild dehydration only Hypoalbuminaemia Dehydration Absorption time Limited S/C space e.g. reptiles Reptiles - skin sloughing with some drugs, skin pigment changes, inelastic skin so leakage possible
Where to administer SC fluids to exotics?
Mammals - inter scapular, lateral body wall
Birds - pre-crural fold, inter scapular, lateral body wall
Reptiles - lateral body wall (squamates), inguinal/axillary folds in chelonia
Limitations of IV fluids in exotic mammals and birds?
IV access challenging/impossible in small/collapsed patients
Appropriate sized catheters
Stress of restraint (GA/sedation?)
Mammals - Thick skin
Birds - tolerance of drip line, maintenance/self removal of IV catheter
Where to administer IV fluids in rabbits and rodents?
Rabbits - cephalic, lateral saphenous, marginal auricular (challenging in dwarf breeds)
Rodents - cephalic, lateral saphenous, jugular, lateral tail)
Where to administer IV fluids in birds?
Medial tarsal vein
Basilic vein
Right jugular vein
Consider prior IO volume resuscitation in collapsed patients
Limitations of IV fluids in reptiles?
IV access challenging/impossible in small/collapsed patients
Accessibility of veins - larger chelonia
Surgical cut down technique usually required for catheter placement (analgesia, anaesthesia)
Where to administer IV fluids in reptiles?
Lizards - ventral tail/caudal vein, cephalic, jugular, ventral abdominal vein
Snakes - ventral tail vein, jugular
Chelonia - jugular, dorsal tail vein
In which animals are intraperitoneal, intracoelomic and epicoelomic fluids used? How much?
Intraperitoneal in mammals: 20-50ml/kg (care re caecum in hindgut fermenters ie avoid in rabbits)
Intracoelomic in reptiles: 20-30ml/kg/day maximum (care air sacs and carapacial fractures (chelonia) - not really recommended
Epicoelomic in chelonia: 10-20ml/kg (between plastron – add from slides
How to do fluid administration via bathing for chelonia and lizards? How does it work?
20 minutes twice daily
Absorption into bladder
Limitations of intraosseous fluids?
Analgesia/anaesthesia for placement
Positive pressure required
Knowledge of anatomy
Species variation - e.g. hedgehogs curling, birds bipedal, snakes stylette/cortical plugs
Where to administer intrasseous fluids in birds, mammals and reptiles?
Birds - distal ulna (dorsal condyle), proximal tibiotarsus (tibial crest)
Mammals - proximal tibia (tibial crest), proximal femur (trochanteric fossa)
Reptiles - proximal tibia (tibial crest), proximal humerus, distal femur, plastrocarapacial bridge (chelonia)
What is the stimulus for respiration in mammals, reptiles and birds? How does this affect oxygen therapy?
Mammals: hypercapnia - give 100% oxygen
Reptiles and birds: hypoxia - give 30-50% oxygen
What is the maximum blood draw from healthy animals?
1% BW (1ml/100g)
Include anticipated haemorrhage/haematoma
Emergency minimum blood tests for exotics?
Gluocse Ca2+ PCV TS Lactate
What is the blood volume of exotic mammals, birds and reptiles?
Mammals: 50-80ml/kg
Birds: 60-120ml/kg
Reptiles: 40-80ml/kg
Venipuncture sites for exotic mammals?
– Jugular – Cranial Vena Cava – Saphenous – Cephalic – Lateral tail vein (rats) – Marginal auricular vein (rabbits)
Venipuncture sites for birds?
– Right jugular
– Medial metatarsal vein
– Basilic/ulnarvein
Venipuncture sites for reptiles:
Lizards: – Ventral coccygeal vein (avoid hemipenes), care autotomy – Ventral abdominal vein Snakes: – Cardiocentesis – Ventral coccygeal vein (avoid hemipenes) Chelonia: – Jugular – Sub-carapacial sinus (lymph) – Dorsal tail vein
How to calculate the basal energy requirement (BER) for exotics?
kcal/day = K x BW(kg)^0.75 Placental mammals: K=70 Marsupial mammals: K=49 Passerines: K=129 Non passerines: K=78 Reptiles: K=10
What drugs are contraindicated in rabbits, rodents, birds and chelonia?
Rabbits: - PLACE antibiotics - Fipronil - Corticosteroids Rodents: - PLACE antibiotics - Corticosteroids - more tolerant than rabbits but still avoid Birds: - Itraconazole - care in grey parrots (lower dose to avoid hepatotoxicity) - Fenbendazole when in moult - Corticosteroids Chelonia: - Ivermectin
Where to administer IM drugs in exotic mammals?
Quadriceps
Epaxial muscles
Hedgehogs - orbicularis muscle
Where to administer IM drugs in birds?
Pectoral muscles - caudal 2/3 to avoid brachial plexus, care with flying birds e.g. racing pigeons
Quadriceps
Where to administer IM drugs in reptiles?
Chelonia - triceps/biceps/any palpable muscle mass
Lizards - triceps/quadriceps, epaxial muscles - care re autotomy
Snakes - epaxial muscles (33% itv length)
What is refeeding syndrome?
Prolonged anorexia
Blood sugar stabilises but glycogen stores are depleted
Feeding -> blood sugar peaks -> insulin release -> glucose shunted intracellularly in order to replenish glycogen stores, K+ and phosphorous
Leads to hypokalaemia and hypophosphataemia
Clinical signs particularly cardiac signs e.g. bradycardia, as well as neurological signs
Potentially fatal
How to avoid refeeding syndrome?
Feed 1/3 of caloric requirement on first day
Feed 2/3 of caloric requirement on second day
Feed 3/3 of caloric requirement on third day
Slower in reptiles
CPCR compressions:breaths for mammals and birds?
5 compressions to one breath
When to use crystalloids in exotics?
Rescuscitation and maintenance
Hypertonic saline works synergistically with colloids in resuscitation
3-5ml/kg over 10 mins
When to use colloids in exotics? How much?
IV volume expanders - can expand blood volume by 1.4x
Rescuscitation
Reduced crystalloid requirements (40-60%)
Administer with crystalloids to avoid interstitial volume depletion
20ml/kg for hetastarch
When to use Haemoglobin based oxygen carrier fluids in exotics? How much?
Indicated where increased O2 delivery needed
Non antigenic so no cross matching needed
Very effective for haemorrhagic shock
2-5ml/kg
When to use blood products for exotics? How much?
Not usually for emergency resuscitation
Indicated if loss or depletion of albumin, coagulation factors, platelets or RBCs
>20% blood volume lost
Aim to get a PCV > 25%
10-20ml/kg plus other resuscitation fluids
What is the most common cause of seizures in an African Grey Parrot? Treatment?
Hypocalcaemia
IM or IV calcium salts required for emergency treatment
+ benzodiazepine for seizures
Reasons to spay rabbits? Method - anatomy to be aware of? types of sutures?
Reasons: high rate of uterine adenocarcinoma, social animals - prevents unwanted litters
Midline approach
Bicornuate uterus, two cervices, no true uterine body
Prone to adhesions - careful tissue handling
Fat around ovaries and in mesometrium
Cranial vagina
Synthetic monofilament suture material as prone to reactions
Intradermal skin sutures following routine closure of muscle
Resons to castrate rabbits? Method? Anatomy to be aware of? Sutures? When non fertile?
Reasons: behaviour/integration, social animals - prevent unwanted litters
Testes cranial to penis
Able to retract testes into abdomen
Prescrotal or scrotal approach
Semi closed or closed technique
Open inguinal ring - must close tunic to prevent herniation
Intradermal sutures or tissue glue
Can be fertile up to 6 weeks post neutering
Reasons to spay rodents? Method?
Prevention of disease: - cystic ovarian disease (guinea pigs) - mammary tumours and pituitary tumours (rats) - pyometra - neoplasia Ovariohysterectomy vs ovariectomy Midline vs flank Intradermal skin sutures Local anaesthesia
Reasons to castrate rodents? Method?
Reason: reproductive control Prescrotal vs scrotal vs abdominal Infection risk Semi closed or closed technique Splash block (lidocaine/bupivocaine) Intradermal skin sutures
Reasons to spay ferrets?
Control of musky odour
Oestrogen toxicity
Consider alternatives due to adrenal disease
Method for spaying ferrets? Anatomy to be aware of? Types of sutures?
Ventral midline approach
Similar procedure to cat ovariohysterectomy
Ovary small and embedded in fat
Intradermal suture pattern
Synthetic absorbable suture material
Consider deslorelin implant post neutering
Reasons to castrate ferrets? Method?
Control of musky odour
Reproductive control (social groups)
Aggression
Risk of drenal gland disease
Open, scrotal approach - similar to cat
Tend to bleed more in breeding season (vessels larger)
Consider deslorelin implant post neutering or as alternative
Reasons to vasectomise ferrets? When non fertile?
Jills are induced ovulators
75% cessation of oestrus on first mating
No risk of adrenal disease
Can be fertile ? 7 weeks post vasectomy
Examples of rapid absorbable suture materials?
Polygactin 910 (Vicryl) Polydioxanone (PDS)
What types of skin sutures should be used for reptiles and why? When removed?
Everting skin sutures as reptile skin naturally inverts when healing
Strong suture material
Delayed suture removal - 6 weeks (prolonged healing), ecdysis may lead to premature loss
How long does it take for transplastron coeliotomy of chelonia to heal?
12-18 weeks
Acrylic/epoxy resin left for 6-12 months
What is Carboxymethylcellulose?
‘Belly jelly’
Use as topical gel/sheet to aid tissue lubrication post-op for mammals
Left in coelom/abdomen after surgery
Hormonal control of reproduction - options in mammals?
Deslorelin implant - licensed in male ferrets hCG Proligestone Leuprolide acetate Aglepristone
Indications for hormonal control of reproduction in birds? Examples?
Reproductive disease Chronic egg laying Behaviour Dystocia Deslorelin Leuprolide
Indications for hormonal control of reproduction in reptiles? Examples?
Pre and post ovulatory stasis
Deslorelin
Leuprolide
What main licensed vaccinations are available for birds?
Pigeons - PMV, Pox
Chickens - IBD, IB, Salmonella, CAV
Psittacines (USA/Canada) - Polyoma virus
What licensed vaccines are there for rabbits? When given?
RHD1-myxo - from 5 weeks, annual
RHD2/RHD1 - from 30 days, 2 weeks apart from RHD1 vaccination
What licensed vaccinations are there for ferrets and rodents?
Ferrets - rabies, distemper (not licensed)
Rodents - guinea pig Bordetella vaccine?
Treatment of endoparasites in birds?
Amidostomum/Echinuria (waterfowl) - praziquantel/pyrantel
Roundworms, Syngamus, hairworm, caecal worm (poultry) - flubendazole (0 day egg withdrawal)
Drugs for ectoparasite control in exotic mammals?
Ferrets - fipronil and S-methoprene (frontline combo), imidocloprid/moxidectin (advocate)
Rabbits - imidacloprid licensed for fleas (advantage), cyromazine (rearguard), ivermectin, selamectin
Fipronil toxic in rabbits!
Drug used for endoparasites of rabbits?
Fenbendazole
Not for routine worming
Encephalitozoon cuniculi
Drugs for ectoparasite control of reptiles?
Nothing licensed
Fibronil spray (wipe)
Ivermectin - not chelonia
Drug of choice for treatment of endoparasites in reptiles?
Fenbendazole
What to do if trimming pet bird wings?
Symmetrical only
Primary feathers only
Postpone if blood feathers found
What is pinioning? How?
Permanent flight prevention Waterfowl downies < 10 days old only Unilateral amputation of distal wing tip, distal to alula Act of veterinary surgery 3-4 days old, cartilage, skin, down Alula must be preserved Metacarpals should be as short as possible Silver nitrate for haemostasis Consider myiasis
Placement of microchips in birds and reptiles?
Birds - most LHS pectoral, ratites LHS pipping muscle, penguins SQ base of neck
Reptiles - L hindlimb (SQ) in chelonia and lizards, LHS body 3 head spaces back from head in snakes (BVZS) or LHS cloaca
ASA categories for anaeshesia?
Class 1 = fit and healthy, no systemic disease
Class 2 = mild to moderate systemic disease only e.g. skin tumour, chronic arthritis, fracture without shock
Class 3 = severe systemic disease, causing mild symptoms/limiting activity but not incapacitating e.g moderate hypovolaemia, anaemia or pyrexia, mild to moderate heart failure
Class 4 = severe systemic disease that is a constant threat to life e.g. severe uraemia, toxaemia, hypovolaemia, heart failure
Class 5 = moribund patient that is not expected to survive 24h with or without operation e.g. extreme sepsis/shock
Behavioural and postural responses for pain recognition in exotics?
Lack of alertness/reduced mentation/lack of interest in surroundings
Hiding
Shifting/throwing themselves around/unable to get comfortable
Sitting in hunched position
Failure to use/move certain parts of the body
Head pressing
Increased/unusual aggression
Indicative pain behaviours?
= behaviours that are rarely seen prior to painful stimulus but often afterwards Twitching Wincing Staggering Flinching Belly pressing Slow postural adjustments Shuffling gait
Side effects of opioids in exotics?
Respiratory depression
Gut motility
Nausea
Excitation
Why are steroids avoided in exotics?
Profound immune suppressive effect - WBC lysis
Lots of exotics may have underlying clinical pathology
Which receptors does each opioid work on?
Morphine: pure u agonist (rarely used in rabbits)
Methadone: synthetic pure u agonist
Fentanyl: pure u agonist (can be used alone or in combo with fluanisone)
Buprenorphine: partial u agonist (slow onset but safe)
Butorphanol: mixed u agonist/antagonist (ceiling effect = dose above which no additional effect)
Which opioid receptors do birds and reptiles have?
Birds = primarily k Reptiles = vary between k and uncategorised receptors which are similar to mammalian mu receptors
NSAIDs - What must be monitored? Side effects? Dosing frequency? Examples?
Monitor carefully: hydration status and renal function
GI side effects
May affect caecotrophy/coprophagy
Increased dosing frequency in rabbits/rodents e.g. BID
Decreased dosing frequency in reptiles e.g. q 2 days
Meloxicam - COX 2 selective, few side effects, good safety, palatable liquid
Carprofen
Ketofen
How does tramadol work?
u receptor agonist
Seratonin and adrenaline re-uptake inhibition
Alpha-2 agonist
Appears to be very safe and effective for most exotic species
Gabapentin/pregabalin - use in exotics? side effects?
Anti-convulsant that modifies the perception of neuropathic pain
Can see ataxia and sedation
Which exotic species can paracetamol not be used in?
Ferrets
Ketamine and amantadine - how does it work?
At very low doses blocks NMDA receptors
Prevents wind up pain
What types of pain are a2 agonists useful for in exotics?
Visceral, musculoskeletal and neuropathic pain
Maropitant - how does it work? Use?
Centrally acting anti-nausea drug due to effect on CTZ
Also good anti-inflammatory and show to be anaesthetic sparing in dogs
Which drugs can be given as constant rate infusions for pain relief? Benefits? Cons?
Generally ketamine with other medications e.g. morphine and lidocaine
Constant delivery of analgesia
Requires very good patient monitoring
Requires accurate fluid delivery ie infusion pump or syringe driver
Really useful to prevent wind up pain and where planned interventions are likely to be painful
What is EMLA?
Topical local analgesia
Lidocaine with prilocaine
What are benzodiazepines, ketamine, a2 agonists and alfaxolone/prpofol good/bad for in anaesthesia?
Benzodiazepines - good muscle relaxation and anxiolysis, midazolam - amnesia
Ketamine - poor muscle relaxation but good analgesia, supports BP
A2 agonists - good muscle relaxation and some analgesia but haemodynamic issues
(reduced by combining with other drugs)
Alfaxolone/propofol - good muscle relaxation and promotes unconsciousness but no analgesia
Common anaesthetic protocols for exotics?
Triple combination - a2 agonist + opiate + ketamine
Ketamine + benzodiazepine
Benzodiazepine + opiate + propofol or alfaxolone + volatile agent
Opiate/ACP + propofol or alfaxolone + gas
Volatile agent alone
Antagonism of a2 agonists, benzodiazepines and opioids - Which drug? What to be aware of?
A2 agonists: atipamezole
Benzodiazepines: flumazenil (NB anxiety, restlessness and lowered seizure threshold can occur)
Opioids: naloxone (repeat doses may be needed, also reverse analgesia so can leave patient in acute pain)
Should rodents and rabbits be staved pre-op?
No
Risk of hypoglycaemia
Can’t vomit/low risk
Take food out 0.5-1h before and check mouth for food once anaesthetised
Limiting factors for endotracheal intubation of exotic mammals?
Palatial ostia in rodents - v difficult Long oral cavities with limited gape Fleshy tongue Size of patient Risk of tracheal trauma/hypoxia Risk of tube blockage (check mouth)
Methods of intubating exotic mammals?
Direct visualisation - laryngoscope, endoscope, pull tongue forwards, topical anaesthetic, stylette
Blind technique - ventral recumbency, hyperextend head and neck, listen/feel, advance on inspiration with twist, confirm placement with IPPV or condensation, risk of pushing food into trachea and of traumatising larynx
What are supraglottic airway devices?
V-gel Quick and easy to insert No risk of tracheal trauma/stricture Expensive Ideally use capnography to ensure correct porition
When to feed exotic mammals post-op?
Within 1 hour recovery
What recumbency should avians be in for recovery? What to be careful of?
Lateral recumbency Care with disorientation, wing flapping Ensure awake prior to extubation Muscle twitching common Hold until able to perch Crop tube if not eating soon post GA
Which animals have complete tracheal rings?
Birds - don’t cuff tubes
Rabbits?
Positions of birds for anaesthesia - problems?
Induce in vertical posistion
Maintain in lateral - only compromises 50% of air sacs, care to not restrict wind movement (pneumatised humeri/femurs)
Dorsal recembency - viscera puts pressure on caudal airsick, reduces effective ventilatory volume
Ventral recumbency - limits ventral chest excursions and abdominal viscera press on air sacs
What do birds and reptiles rely on for breathing?
Birds - rely on movement of air sacs and ventral chest excursions
Reptiles - rely on chest excursions (legs in chelonia)
Why is ventilation mandatory for reptile anaesthesia?
May be quite resistant to reduced ventilation/apnoea
May not breathe frequently enough on gas anaesthesia to keep themselves asleep
ET intubation in reptiles?
Short ETT
Essential for IPPV as apnoea common
Rostral glottis in snakes and carnivorous lizards
Herbivores glottis at base of fleshy tongue
Anaesthetic monitoring in reptiles - reflexes and responses?
Righting reflex
Toe and tail pinch
Head withdrawal - toe is pinched and head is slightly withdrawn
Palpebral response
Vent response
Tongue withdrawal in snakes – remains present at sx plane
Corneal reflex – remains present at sx plane (except
snakes)
Jaw tone
Reflexes lost cranial to caudal and return caudal to cranial
Cardiovascular and respiratory systems monitoring
What to do in recovery for reptiles - ventilation? drugs? recovery time?
Ventilate with room air in recovery - Ambu-bag, spontaneous breathing will return more quickly
Doxapram hydrochloride = effective respiratory stimulant used in apnoeic snakes
Fluids
POTZ
Recovery can take 10-30 mins
Full recovery may take up to 24 hours
Anaesthesia methods for fish?
MS222 - make up buffered solution, add to known volume of tank water, volume of drug added correlates to anaesthetic depth
2-Phenoxyethanol - can be used at increased dose for euthanasia, once level of anaesthesia reached remove from water, place on wet surface and can maintain with anaesthetic solution pumped over the gills
Recovery - fresh tank water, until fish remains normally upright
Stages of fish anaesthesia?
Stage 1: light - reduced reactivity
Stage 2: deep sedation - loss of reactivity other than strong pressure, normal equilibrium
Stage 3: Light anaesthesia - partial loss of equilibrium, erratic swimming and increased gill movements
Stage 4: Deep anaesthesia - total loss of equilibrium, reacts only to strong pressure, reduced opercular movements
Stage 5: Loss of reflex activity, shallow opercular movements, no reaction to pressure
Stage 6: Medullary depression - gasping followed by gill movements stopping
Monitoring - initially visually and use of reflexes, can use doppler probe for auditory heart monitoring
Where are rabbit caecotrophs digested?
Stomach
Why can’t rabbits vomit?
Strong muscular cardiac sphincter
Anatomy of the caecum in the rabbit? What happens there?
Very large
Folded around 3 times = gyri
Vermiform appendix secretes HCl to control pH
Sacculus rotundus
Where most digestion occurs
Digestible fibre sent back from colon to caecum for further digestion
Anatomy of the colon in the rabbit? What happens there?
Separates the large indigestible fibre particles from smaller digestible particles
Haustra act as as an elevator moving digestible particles towards caecum
Proximal colon - 3 hausfrau, 3 taenia
Fusus coli - controlled by aldostereone and prostaglandins, pacemaker of the gut, no taenia?
Distal colon - strong muscular contractions for hard faeces phase, rapid more gentle contraction for soft faeces phase
Problems with gut stasis in rabbits?
Interstitial fluid flows into gut - dehydration
Painful
Potentially fatal, electrolyte derangement as not secreted/reabsorbed so GA not option
Diagnosis of gut stasis in rabbits?
History - reduced/absent appetite and faecal production
Often lethargic
Lack of gut sounds or abnormally loud borborygmi on abdominal auscultation
Abdominal palpation - ‘empty’ abdomen, or dilated/fluid filled gut loops, or may be painful, or impactions of viscera felt
Blood glucose levels (>18mmol/L suspicious of GI blockage but poor se and sp)
Abdominal ultrasonography
Radiography
Contrast studies
CT/MRI?
Exploratory surgery
Possible causes of gut stasis in rabbits?
GI blockage
Dysbiosis
In the case of GI obstruction causing gut stasis, what treatment is needed? Which drugs are contraindicated?
Surgical intervention
Must stabilise prior to surgery
Pro-kinetics are contraindicated pre and post-op
What is dysbiosis? Causes? Signs? Treatment?
= A challenge to or alteration of the gut bacteria
Causes: antibiotic usage, alteration in body temperature, change in gut motility, drastic alteration in diet
Signs: change in faecal consistency, alteration of appetite
Possibly production of endotoxins if pathogenic bacteria such as Clostridia prevail
Treatment: adsorbents (cholestyramine, activated charcoal) may help in addition to aggressive treatment for the underlying cause
Why may a rabbit not be eating caecotrophs?
Change in taste of caecotrophs (diet change, medications, infection)
Change in caecotroph consistency e.g. more runny (infection/inflammation/mural lesion in caecum)
Inability/unwillingness to turn around and eat them (pain-dental disease, spondylosis, osteoarthritis, poor balance-head tilt due to inner ear disease/E.cuniculi)
Significance of diarrhoea in rabbits? Causes?
True emergency
Gut motility is seriously disordered
Rapid fluid loss and significant electrolyte imbalance
May be due to protozoan parasites e.g. coccidia, or bacterial infection and endotoxin production e.g. Clostridium piriformis (Tyzzers disease)
What is mucoid enteropathy in rabbits? Cause? Treatment?
Distinct diarrhoea complex usually of juvenile rabbits
Often related to very low fibre diets
Small and large intestines are dilated with mucoid diarrhoea
Few/no histological changes found
Causative agent unknown - thought to be a contagious infection
Treatment is often unrewarding
What is bloat in rapids? Why does it happen? Treatment?
Defined as gut loops filled with gas
Intensely painful
Bacteria within gut produce gas either when multi biome changes, or diet changes
Can cause functional obstruction of pyloric outflow - gastric dilatation
Rabbit stomachs do not usually progress to torsion
May require surgery in order to allow the gas to pass out of the stomach
What is caecal impaction in the rabbit? What happens? Treatment?
Fills with ingesta and fails to empty
Often will continue to produce normal hard faeces but no normal caecotrophs passed
Caecum gets progressively more and more full
Painful
Weight loss as caectrophs that would be absorbed as calories or nutrients are sequestered in the caecum
No really helpful treatment - PGF2a suggested
When is Coccidiosis typically seen in rabbits? Risk factors? Which forms cause what?
Weanlings (immune prior to weaning)
Risk factors: poor hygiene, overstocking, stress
Disease rare in adults
Infection common, disease rarer - species vary in pathogenicity
Enteric forms: diarrhoea (+/- mucus/blood), stunting, weight loss, lethargy, anorexia, death
Hepatic forms: subclinical or weight loss, stunting, ascites, jaundice, hepatomegaly
Which are the major gut parasites in rabbits?
Coccidia
Passalurus ambiguus - common pinworm, part of multi biome and potentially helps in caecal contents mixing/digestion
Obeliscoides cuniculi - stomach worm, not reported in pet rabbits in UK
Trichostrongylus retortaeformis - intestinal worm in Europe and Australia
Taenia - intermediate host
Routine worming not indicated for most rabbits in UK
What is dysautonomia in rabbits? Which age affected? Risk factor? Signs? Cause? Treatment?
= dysfunction of the ANS (degenerative changes in autonomic neurones)
Sometimes called megacolon
Often weanlings but adults can be affected
Risk factor = low fibre diet
Palpable large bowel impaction, pain, reduced gut function - stomach and caecum also don’t empty
Swallowing difficulties and urinary incontinence may also be notes
Cause unknown (C botulinum suspected for grass sickness)
No effective treatment - don’t use oral meds as risk of inhalation pneumonia
What pro-kinetics can be used in rabbits? When are they contraindicated?
Metaclopramide, cisapride, ranitidine, domperidone
Contraindicated if GI obstruction and after gut surgery where lumen of gut has been opened
Acts to promote stomach emptying or general persistalsis but many clinicians feel not needed if diagnose and treat underlying issue
When should rabbits and other small furries be support fed?
When not eating and not obstructed
Until voluntary eating returns
To ensure gut function is maintained and gut motility is promoted
Should fluids be given to a rabbit that is not eating?
Any animal that is not eating voluntarily should be assumed to be at least 5% dehydrated
2-4ml/kg/hr or 100ml/kg/24hr
Are pro-biotics ok for rabbits?
Evidence for and against
Worst case is don’t work
Unlikely to do harm
What type of teeth do rabbits have? How quick do they grow?
Hypsodont = no true root
Elodont = open rooted, constantly growing
Diphyodont = 2 sets of teeth, first lost at/around birth so should never be seen clinically
Grow 1-3mm/week
Causes of dental disease in rabbits?
Congenital
Acquired - anorexia
Trauma - fractured teeth/jaw
Clinical signs of dental disease in rabbits?
Anorexia
Drooling
Tooth grinding
Wet below chin/on front paws
Change in dietary preference - stops eating either hay/vegetables or pellets where previously ate them
May be no clinical signs until things are fairly advanced
Treatment for dental disease in rabbits?
Make certain gut is working
Correct fluid and electrolyte imbalances
Provide analgesia
Once stable, consider GA, dental X-rays, burring teeth
Why are dental X-rays important in rabbits? How many views?
2/3 of tooth is within jaw
5 views
Dental anatomy of rabbits to be aware of when burring?
Maxillary arcades are wider than mandibular
Occlusal surface of teeth approximately horizontal to 10 degrees off with mandibular arcades higher on lingual than buccal edge - slope is slightly down away from tongue
Only one side of the dental arcades can be occluding at any one time
Check for specific spurs, loose teeth, areas that appear abnormal
Check ROM
Dental anatomy of guinea pigs?
Mandibular arcades are wider than maxillary arcades
Occlusal surface is approximately 30 degrees off horizontal with the mandibular arcades being lower on the lingual than buccal sides
The caudal portion of the dental arcades are closer together than the rostral portions - distance between the arcades becomes very narrow at the back of the mouth
Dental anatomy of chinchillas?
Mandibular arcades slightly wider than maxillary - not as pronounced as in guinea pigs
Occlusal surface is between horizontal and 10- 15 degrees off with the slope being down towards the lingual side of the mandibular teeth
Jaw ROM is similar to guinea pigs
Degus are very similar to chinchillas
Causes of oral/dental abscesses in rabbits? Treatment?
Secondary to trauma/bite wounds, post-op or dental disease
Best treatment method is radical/complete surgical excision and primary closure of a clean wound - not always possible
Remove affected teeth if dental abscess
Long course of antibiotics
Antibiotic Impregnated Poly Methyl Methacrylate beads (AIPMMA beads)
Risk factors for pododermatitis in rabbits? Treatment/prevention?
Risk factors: - (No foot pads) - obesity - soiled bedding - wire floors - rex rabbits Treatment: - deep bedding - analgesia, antibiotics - surgical intervention in severe cases
