Feminism

Question 1

Def of feminism

Answer 1

Ideology that aims for gender equality.

Question 2

First wave

Answer 2

First wave (1850s-1940s): focused on the legal and political rights of women, most famously in the UK through the suffragette movement, which culminated in equal suffrage with men in 1928 (see page 5 for more on efforts to reform democracy in the UK).

Question 3

Second wave

Answer 3

Second wave (1960s-1980s): focused on the different roles that society expected of men and women. Many books on feminism were written, including The Second Sex (1949) by Simone de Beauvoir, The Feminine Mystique (1963) by Betty Friedan and Sexual Politics (1970) by Kate Millett.

Question 4

Third wave

Answer 4

Third wave (1990s): was concerned that
wo
feminism had failed to identify and recognise the concerns of women of other cultures.
Authors such as bell hooks in Ain’t I a
Woman (1981) wrote about the experiences of women of colour and wanted feminism to widen its embrace to understand how cultural variations affect women’s oppression.

Question 5

Fourth wave

Answer 5

Fourth wave (2008 onwards): is feminism entering a fourth wave, reacting against online misogyny? For example, Laura Bates’s website The Everyday Sexism Project seeks to document everyday examples of sexism; Project Unbreakable seeks to give a voice to victims of sexual violence by posting photographs on Instagram of quotes from their attackers.

Question 6

Feminist view on gender stereotypes

Answer 6

No justification

Question 7

Sex def

Answer 7

refers to biological differences between men and women:
body shape, size, sexual and reproductive organs
is categorised by the words (‘male’ and ‘lemale remains the same regardless of time and culture

Question 8

Gender def

Answer 8

refers to the social and cultural differences between men and women
is categorised by the words
‘masculine’ and ‘feminine expectations differ across time and culture

Question 9

What is patriarchy and key features

Answer 9

Feminists identify patriarchy as a system run by and for men. Sylvia Walby in Theorizing Patriarchy (1990) identified six areas through which patriarchal ideas dominate society:
The state: women have been denied representation and are underrepresented in the formal positions of power.
Household: women have been discouraged from occupations outside the home.
Culture: society has always reinforced messages to women through culture. Adverts emphasised a woman’s domestic role. There are now unrealistic expectations of women’s appearance.
Sexuality: women were made to feel abnormal for having sexual feelings while encouraging men to fully explore their sexuality.
Paid work: when women were allowed to take up paid jobs, they were pushed towards low-paid or part-time jobs, or jobs that put them in an assistant position to men.
Violence: domestic abuse has only recently been taken seriously in society; previously, it was considered a private matter.

Question 10

The personal is political

Answer 10

Feminists challenge the idea that what goes on between men and women in the private sphere beersonal” relationships) has nothing to do with the rest of society. These private’ issues include:
• household division of labour
• attitude towards women who want to work
•’morality associated with women’s sexuality
• objectification of women.
Feminists argue that in fact these ‘private’ issues were all ways of keeping women in their subordinate place in society. This distinction between the public sphere (society) and private sphere (home) were therefore about power, and were thus ‘political?.

‘The personal is political’ is a slogan that arose with second-wave feminism, which sought to challenge all of society’s views about women, specifically the public and private sphere.

Question 11

Personal is political in each area

Answer 11

Human nature- Feminists reject the view that women’s nature makes them more suited to domestic roles and are naturally less capable than men.
The state- Feminists argue that the state perpetuates the artificial distinction between private and public oppression.
Society- Feminists seeks to change society by removing the distinction in patriarchal society to enable oppression in the private sphere to be removed.
Economy- Feminists believe that women are restricted from entering the economy as equals to men because of misconceptions that their key role should be at home.

Question 12

Equality feminism

Answer 12

Most feminists studied come under the heading of ‘equality’ feminists (see page 137 for an overview of different types of feminists), meaning that they believe that the differences between men and women are irrelevant and both can be considered equally capable of fulfilling all roles in society (bar child-bearing).

Question 13

Difference feminism

Answer 13

This is also known as essentialism. Difference feminists angue that the differences between men and women are innate (natural). They argue that equality feminism has encouraged women to reject ‘womanhood and instead to try to be like a man, replicating male behaviour (see page 137).

Question 14

Intersectionality

Answer 14

Intersectionality in feminism emerged in the 1980s and criticised feminism for considering only the concerns of white (largely middle-class) women and ignoring all other classes and cultures.
Intersectionality suggested that feminism needed to embrace women of different ethnicities, religions and classes. This movement, identified by bell hooks among others, argued that the feminist movement had left ‘women of colour and other differences (class, ethnicity, religion, etc.) feeling estranged as their experience of oppression was different to that discussed by feminists so far.

Question 15

Betty Friedan

Answer 15

In The Feminine Mystique (1963), Friedan discussed the idea of ‘the problem with no name’, which resulted in many (white, middle-class) women questioning their role in society and demanding change. Friedan believed in foundational equality (women are as capable as men). She fought for legal and political equality as well as equality of opportunity in education and the workplace. She wanted women to fulfil their potential and have the freedom and chances in society to do so. See page 55 for more on Friedan’s views.

Question 16

Liberal feminism and key principles

Answer 16

Liberal feminism was an early form of feminism (see page 133 to revise first-wave feminism) primarily associated with the demand for women’s right to vote. Its core ideas and principles include:
• Individualism: women (like all humans) should have the freedom they need to become autonomous individuals in society.
• Equality of opportunity: ensuring that women and men have equal chances in life.
• Foundational equality: all humans are of equal moral worth and value. In the eyes of the law, all humans, whatever their sex, are entitled to the same rights as each other, for example to vote, protest, and so on. This is known as legal equality and political equality.
• Reformist: society does not require fundamental or even radical change. As society progresses, inequalities will be rectified. This will happen by changes in the law, leading to changes in attitudes and the process of ‘role-modelling (that is, seeing women in non-traditional roles which challenge the inherent bias of society).
• Discrimination: women are discriminated against, not oppressed.

Question 17

Socialist feminism and key principles

Answer 17

Socialist feminism believes that gender inequality in society stems from economics and capitalism. Its core ideas and principles include:
• Eradication of capitalism: capitalism creates patriarchy and subordinates women in order to fulfil the role of a reserve army of labour, do domestic work for free, reproduce children and socialise them into capitalist values, and look after their husband at home and replenish his energy for a full day’s work.
• Economic and social equality: women should be liberated through a socialist revolution. When capitalism is removed, women will be treated equally.
• Radical/revolutionary: socialist feminism is a revolutionary or a radical movement as they wish to overthrow capitalism and replace it with a socialist society. Only then will women be equal to men.
• Marriage and family: a key area of women’s oppression. Removing women from the workforce makes them financially dependent on their husbands. Monogamy guaranteed the paternity of any children who would inherit property.

Question 18

What are radical feminists

Answer 18

The only ones who define society as patriarchal. They believe that the biggest problem facing society is gender inequality.

Question 19

Radical feminism belief about gender inequality and patriarchy

Answer 19

Radical feminists are united by their insistence that society has a single source of female oppression - patriarchy. They reject the liberal and socialist view that feminism can be understood in association with any other ideology. Patriarchy is an independent system of oppression. They believe that only through a radical sexual revolution can patriarchy be removed and women be free.
Beyond this core belief, it is important to see radical feminism as a collection of unique contributions and extensions to this core, unifying belief.

Question 20

Equality radical feminists

Answer 20

The vast majority of radical feminists are ‘equality’ radical feminists who are often outraged by the views expressed by difference feminists. Some feel that it gives men an opportunity to ‘put women back in the kitchen’, while others feel that the ‘man hating of some separatist feminists turns many women away from feminism.

Question 21

Difference radical feminists

Answer 21

Difference feminists (also known as cultural feminists or essentialists) make up a very small strand of radical feminists. They suggest that women should stop denying their own, distinct female nature by trying to imitate men (see page 135 for an overview of difference feminism). Instead, they should embrace their female values, which patriarchal society has taught them to hate.

Question 22

Separatist feminists

Answer 22

A much more extreme version of these ideas are separatist feminists, whereby women seek to separate themselves from men, believing that men are naturally predisposed to dominate women.

Question 23

What are post modern feminists

Answer 23

Post-modern feminism is about being different, but not in the same way as difference feminism. It argues that patriarchy appears in many different ways depending on a woman’s race, class or identity, and therefore supports a wider understanding of the experiences of women. This was the key issue of third-wave feminism (see page 133 for an overview of the different stages of feminism).

Question 24

Different experiences aspect of PMF

Answer 24

By applying post-modern ideas to feminism, postmodern feminism recognised that it is impossible to generalise about a single ‘women’s experience* because there is too vast an array of different experiences. Post-modern feminism is therefore linked to the concept of intersectionality (read more about intersectionality on page 135), which seeks to highlight that women of different colours, religions and classes all have uniquely different experiences of partiarchal oppression. Gender is not the only issue to affect women and must be seen alongside these experiences.
bell hooks criticised the second-wave ‘sisterhood’, which gave white, middle-class women a voice and bond, but discouraged women of colour from speaking about their different experiences (see page 133 for more on third-wave feminism).

Question 25

Individual definitions aspect of PMF

Answer 25

Post-modern feminism is also about women being able to define feminism for themselves. Richards and Baumgardner, in Manifesta (2000), argued that in each generation, young women would rediscover and re-establish what feminism meant for them.

Question 26

Nudity issue PMF

Answer 26

One of the biggest areas of conflict is views towards nudity. While some feminists think public nudity is degrading and oppressive to women, others see it as empowering - that women are owning their bodies and their sexuality.
For example, Femen is a radical feminist group known for its topless protests. Its website states that ‘the right to her body by the woman is the first and the most important step to her liberation. Female nudity, free of patriarchal system, is a grave-digger of the system.’ Other feminists believe that public displays of female nudity are playing into the hands of patriarchy. They argue that all it does is titillate men, who don’t register the protest.
For example, in March 2017 Emma Watson found herself at the centre of a row over her semi-topless cover for Vanity Fair magazine. Watson has a high profile as a feminist campaigner and was caught in the crossfire of the nudity and feminism debate.

Question 27

Appearance issue PMF

Answer 27

SlutWalk originated in Canada after a police officer suggested that ‘women should avoid dressing like sluts’ as a precaution against sexual assault. They were protesting against excusing rape by referring to a woman’s appearance.
Another area of conflict is the wearing of a burga, hijab or other forms of dress worn by Muslim women. Many feminists see this as a sign of patriarchal oppression being forced on women.
Some Muslim women reject this, arguing that they feel freed from the oppressive focus on appearance of Western society.

Question 28

Differing views on patriarchy

Answer 28

Lib: Don’t really recognise the term as systematic oppression. They see it as discrimination, which will be eradicated by society making small, gradual adjustments.

Socialist: Recognise patriarchy as systematic oppression, but they argue it is primarily caused by capitalism, not men.

Rad: Patriarchy is the deepest, most politically important division.
It is a systematic, institutionalised and pervasive form of male power.

PM: Patriarchy is pervasive in society and it mutates according to class, ethnicity and religion. Society needs to recognise the different forms that patriarchy takes.

Question 29

Differing views on sex and gender

Answer 29

Lib: All humans are rational creatures, and so the distinction of sex and gender is artificial.
Women are as capable as men and should have equal chances in society.

Socialist: Reject and seek to eradicate gender stereotypes, which are required by capitalism as it needs women to do free domestic work and fulfil other functions.

Rad: Gender roles are created by patriarchy to subjugate women.
Women are duped into believing that childcare and household work are their natural roles.

PM: Gender roles are forced upon women by society. Those imposed on black and working-class women are different to those imposed on white, middle-class women.

Question 30

Differing views on personal is political

Answer 30

Lib: Reject ‘the personal is political’. Their focus is discrimination in the public sphere. They want to see all barriers to entry in the public sphere removed.

Socialist: The personal is political. Women are forced into domesticity to help reproduce the labour force and other functions for capitalism.

Rad: “Politics’ is found wherever there is an imbalance of power and women are suppressed in both public and
private spheres through male domination.

PM: Support the radical feminist view of society as political, but see ‘politics in a wider way than other radical feminists.

Question 31

Differing views on difference vs equality

Answer 31

Lib: Equality feminists; all humans are of equal moral worth and entitled to the same rights.

Socialist: Equality feminists; they believe in sexual and class equality. Sexual equality is meaningless without class equality and equality must be seen in

Rad: Most are equality feminists: gender inequality is created by patriarchy. Difference feminists: women should not seek to replicate male behaviour and should be free to be
“women”.

PM: Equality feminists; the different experiences of women are crucial in understanding the different ways women are oppressed.

Question 32

Differing views on intersectionality

Answer 32

Lib: All women, no matter what their class, religion or ethnicity, should be treated equally.

Socialist: Capitalism oppresses all women and
working-class men.
They must unite to remove capitalism and patriarchy from society.

Rad: All women are equally oppressed by patriarchy, albeit in different ways.

PM: Different groups of women experience different types of oppression.

Question 33

Differing views on reform or revolution

Answer 33

Lib: Reformist; society will change gradually as women gain greater rights and take on more roles usually associated with men.

Socialist: Only an economic and social revolution will rid society of capitalism and hence patriarchy.

Rad: A social revolution is needed to eradicate society of the
entrenched patriarchal values that are pervasive.

PM: Agree with radical feminists, and the oppression of different classes and ethnicities needs to be eradicated too.

Question 34

Charlotte Perkins Gilman

Answer 34

Gilman was an American socialist feminist. She can be used when discussing socialist feminism, patriarchy, sex and gender roles, personal is political, the economy and society.
Key ideas
Societal pressure: gender stereotyping from childhood is wrong and little boys and girls should not wear different clothes, play with different toys, do different activities or be pushed into different roles.
Economic independence: women’s dependency on their husbands for money is at the heart of their oppression.

Question 35

Simone de Beauvoir

Answer 35

De Beauvoir was a writer and political
De bet. She can be used when discussing sex and gender roles, human nature, patriarchy and society.
Key ideas
Socialisation: society moulds (or (socialises) women into their behaviour, According to de Beauvoir, one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman’.
Otherness: men are the norm and women are ‘other’. Women have accepted this and therefore their subordinate position in society.

Question 36

Kate Millett

Answer 36

Sexual Politics (1970) is often credited with Sexhing radical feminism. She was one it the first feminists to analyse the role of the traditional family in patriarchy. Use her to discuss patriarchy, radical feminism, society and the personal is political.
Key ideas
The family: the family and other influences work together to reinforce patriarchal values teaching girls their ‘role’.
Portrayal of women in art and literature: patriarchal culture has produced writers and literature that degrade women. The language used to describe sex demonstrates the subjugation of women, and women are commodities silenced by the freedom of men to sexually possess them.

Question 37

Sheila Rowbotham

Answer 37

Rowbotham is a socialist feminist, arguing that capitalism is part of the system of female oppression. Use Rowbotham to discuss economy, society, patriarchy and socialist-feminism.
Key ideas
Sexism and capitalism: the oppression of women predates capitalism so it cannot have created’ patriarchy. But sexism and capitalism are closely linked and a ‘revolution within the revolution’ is needed to eradicate both.
The family: is a place where men take ) refuge from alienation in a capitalist economy. Women are oppressed economically and culturally.

Question 38

bell hooks

Answer 38

American author and social activist hooks, campaigned for the cultural concerns of women of colour to be heard in mainstream feminism. Uses: intersectionality, society, patriarchy, sex and gender roles and human nature.

Gender boxes/socialisation: children are lorced into unnatural gender boxes.

Intersectionality: mainstream radical feminism ignores women’s different cultural and class experiences.