Final

Question 1

Cognitive Archaeology

Answer 1

The study of the past ways of thought from material remains
Symbolism, artefacts/ecofacts, art, music, religion, etc.

Question 2

Symbols

Answer 2

There are several examples of symbols

Flags (nationality): Stars and stripes themselves don’t mean the US, but they arbitrarily represent the US because they are a symbol for them now

Ancient Egypt: A specific insect is considered a military symbol (we understand this based on its context). Tutankhamen’s sarcophagus is holding two symbols of royal power at the time - a shepherd’s crook (kingship) and a flail (fertility of the land)

Māori of New Zealand: The stronger warrior you are, the more tattoos you have - not anyone can just get tattoos, they are a symbol of your strength as a warrior

Question 3

Religion

Answer 3

Religions also have a lot of symbolism - e.g. the cross in Christianity, or statues of Gods in Hinduism

Religions function as a symbol for one’s existence in the world - e.g. their purpose

Clifford Geertz: ‘a religion is a symbol of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing those conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic’

Question 4

Internal Social Controls

Answer 4

Morality, daily routines, behaviours, etc.

Social control theory: Relationships, commitments, values, and beliefs encourage conformity - if moral codes are internalised and individuals are tied into broader communities, individuals will voluntarily limit deviant acts
e.g. Murdering someone is morally wrong so I won’t do it

Question 5

External Social Controls

Answer 5

Any form of external pressure used to compel members of society to conform to the rules - mainly, the fear of punishment
e.g. I want to steal this jar of peanut butter, but there are security cameras and I will get caught

Question 6

Code of Hammurabi

Answer 6

A Babylonian text of 282 legal decisions, composed c. 1755-1750 BC. Hammurabi is the sixth king of the First Dynasty of Babylon.

He wrote the Code as a doctrine for the kings of each town/city in Babylon to follow, since he believed they should all follow the main emperor. He also wanted to unify the empire through one code of conduct, since the cities were quite diverse. This is an example of an external social control, as they had to follow his laws or face punishment.

Question 7

Context

Answer 7

Context is important when looking at what certain symbols might mean.

If a certain symbol is repeatedly only found in the graves of a specific group/class of people, then it likely signifies something to do with their class - e.g. royalty, military, nobility, etc. (not specific to graves though).

This could be a specific object or a location/site.

Question 8

Rare Material

Answer 8

The scarcity of a material (e.g. gold, silver, platinum, semi-precious and precious stones, etc.) indicates a lot about what that symbol means.

A rare material means it has high symbolic value - although, rarity is usually determined by how easily available it is (e.g. for Ancient Egyptians, silver was rarer than gold since there were less silver mines so it was a symbol of extreme wealth)

Rarity is also determined by who is allowed to wear/use it (likely because they have the wealth to afford it).

Question 9

Workmanship

Answer 9

Skill of construction is important in determining what an object or site symbolises.
e.g. Children’s toys won’t be made with a high degree of skill because they’re going to play with it and break it anyways - compare to a religious artefact

More skill = more significant: although, this could also just be a form of art - need to be careful when making judgements.

Question 10

Art vs. Practical Use

Answer 10

Art isn’t only for beauty, it can communicate information or make statements - e.g. posters.

Maybe swords can be considered here as well, since some are purposely made with blunt ends or too big so they don’t serve any practical functions but rather are a symbol of power or a symbol for a person’s rank during their life.

Art has social, educational, spiritual, political, and personal functions.

Question 11

Art and Symbolism

Answer 11

Ancient Egypt: Akhenaten and Nefertiti started a new religion and the art/hieroglyphics are symbolic of this - we need to understand the abstractions to reveal what the artwork is trying to say

Art isn’t always symbolic of something - it could also just be to beautify a place or if someone is bored

Question 12

Cave Art

Answer 12

Cave paintings - usually referring to those of prehistoric origin - are generally considered to have had a symbolic or religious function. They are some of the earliest examples of humans’ regard for beauty and/or a mystical side of life, though there is no definite answer to what these paintings mean.

Some of the artwork on these cave walls feature:
Hand prints, abstract shapes, figurative paintings (usually of animals), or engravings

They are mostly painted using some form of red and/or black pigments

Question 13

Ancient Figurines

Answer 13

Palaeolithic Lion Man: Is it a toy or is it representative of a God like in Ancient Egypt - Maahes, the god of war?
We need to take special precaution when looking at things from prehistoric times since there are no written records to help us understand what the object/site means

A statue made of gold or something that took a lot of skill to make means you’re not dealing with just a toy

Question 14

Abstractions

Answer 14

Things that only exist as ideas - usually intangible that manifest into the tangible.

They are harder to understand since there are many factors that need to be considered.

Question 15

Time

Answer 15

Mesopotamian number system: Used the base 60 which we still use today in certain aspects (60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, 360 degrees in a circle, 12 months in a year) - c. 3000 BCE

It is an intangible concept - we invented the concept of time to explain sequences of events and to structure our lives

Question 16

Worth

Answer 16

The (monetary) value of something - could be based on scarcity or abundance, size or quantity, weight, or a symbolic value that it is meant to represent, etc.

Money used to be gold, now we use paper/plastic that represents a large or small number - different economic systems

Our labour earns us money, but there is no actual thing such as money since it’s just a medium of exchange

Question 17

Ideas

Answer 17

Solutions to problems, purposes/aims, opinions, etc.

An intangible concept that cannot concretely be explained. I am having an existential crisis.

Question 18

Space

Answer 18

Proxemics: the study of how people unconsciously structure the space around them, a form of nonverbal communication
Cultural bounds - e.g. in the Middle East vs in the West (gender separations), based on the culture and time

Physical spaces as well: public rooms (male dominated) are found in the front and private rooms (female dominated) are in the back - can be seen through the context, the artefacts left

Question 19

Feelings

Answer 19

Emotions: love, hate, sadness, happiness, fear, courage, anger, etc.

Question 20

Taste

Answer 20

Preferences: food, fashion, design, etc.
Changes throughout time

Question 21

Bioarchaeology

Answer 21

The study of bones and other biological materials found in archaeological remains in order to provide information about human life or the environment in the past.

Question 22

Variety of Human Remains

Answer 22

Skeletons
Mummies
Dry preservation
Frozen
DNA

Question 23

Forensic Anthropology

Answer 23

Sub-field of biological anthropology (the study of human remains) that involves applying skeletal analysis and techniques in archaeology to solving criminal cases.

Question 24

Skeletons

Answer 24

The structural frame that supports the body of the animal.
The last part of the body to decay.

Question 25

Mummies

Answer 25

A body of a human being or animal that has been ceremonially preserved by removal of the internal organs, treatment with nation and resin, and wrapping in bandages.

Most typically associated with Ancient Egypt.

Modern day mummification is embalming.

Question 26

Dry preservation

Answer 26

Dry environments with low levels of humidity help dry out organic materials which allows them to be better preserved than they would be otherwise.

Ancient Egypt: some preservation methods relied on these dry environments.

Issues: the extremes heat and dryness of the climate can also cause problems when organic materials are too dry, since they can crack and crumble, but when kept in conditions that include low amounts of humidity it can increase the longevity.

Question 27

Cold/Frozen Preservation

Answer 27

Frozen conditions allow the preservation of a wide range of organic material in addition to the organic materials which are more commonly found at archaeological sites.

Most chemical and biological processes are slow and cold conditions almost stopping at temperatures below freezing.

Question 28

DNA

Answer 28

The hereditary material in humans and almost all other organic materials. It is found in the nuclei of every cell.

Anthropologists use DNA sequences to help establish identity. This type of testing is most commonly used in modern forensic casework, but mitochondrial DNA in bones and teeth can also be used to confirm relationships of old remains with deceased or living descendants.

DNA can also indicate to any possible diseases, ethnic backgrounds, or causes of death.

Question 29

Identifying Physical Attributes

Answer 29

Helps distinguish between different societies, cultures, classes/ranks, etc.

Question 30

Age

Answer 30

Usually in a range.

Can be determined by the stage of fusion of bones: we are born with approx. 450 bones and the last bones fuse at 26 years of age, resulting in a total of 206 bones

Teeth can also be used to determine age: based on whether they have adult teeth or baby teeth, whether their wisdom teeth have erupted, or the wear and tear of specific teeth

Question 31

Gender/Sex

Answer 31

Male vs. Female

An abstraction (as seen through the Birka viking warrior queen)

Can be identified through things like the skeleton or, if a body is still present, reproductive organs

Question 32

Height

Question 33

Stature

Answer 33

Build

Question 34

Facial Reconstruction

Answer 34

Modern use: when a body is found and needs to be identified

Can also be used to see what people used to look like.

Richard III: The last Plantagenet king who was identified through facial reconstruction which strongly resembled a painting of him.

Question 35

Skull Modification

Answer 35

Mayan (Ancient Peru) Skull Modification: They thought that long heads were beautiful, so parents would strap a pair of boards to the front and back of their babies’ heads while they were still malleable enough to be shaped.
The babies’ heads would be modified to have long and sloping foreheads.
It is speculated that this was done so the heads would resemble corn because of its social and religious value.

Question 36

Beautification Marks

Answer 36

Beautification is a universal custom, but the manner in which different cultures do it vary. Though similarities can be found between societies (such as artificial cranial deformation in the Mayans/Incas and the Ancient Egyptians).

Question 37

Body Modification

Answer 37

Piercings, tattoos, scarification, etc.

Tattoos amongst the Māori.

Papua New Guinea: The crocodile is a symbol of power, so the men of the Sepik have their torsos, backs, and shoulders sliced by razor blades. It’s a rite of passage for young boys of the tribe.

Doesn’t necessarily have a negative connotation to it - all depends on the culture.

Question 38

Intentional Mutilation

Answer 38

Intentional damage to the body that can have a negative effect on an individual’s quality of life.

Papua New Guinea: Ethnoarchaeology in the 1930s revealed that they would cut their fingers as a form of mourning - so it has symbolic purposes.

Ancient France: Possibly it’s the same thing or maybe they just cut their fingers off by accident.

Doesn’t necessarily have a negative connotation to it - all depends on the culture.

Question 39

Bog Bodies

Answer 39

Mummified remains of humans who have died thousands of years ago and found in bogs.

Bogs: Peat, formed by years of plants growing and then dying, and other plant material limit the flow of oxygen - causing the peat to become very acidic. This acidity creates an inhospitable environment for bacteria and fungi, allowing organic material to be preserved.

Question 40

Medical Knowledge

Answer 40

Trephination: one of the oldest surgical procedures known to humanity - a form of ‘therapy’ and refers to a procedure in which a circular piece of bone is drilled and removed, most commonly from the human skull to relieve the patient of headaches.

Bloodletting: the withdrawal of blood from a patient to prevent or cure illness and disease. Done by either a physician or leeches, it was based on an ancient system of medicine - hippocratic medicine - in which the ‘humours’ needed to remain in balance to maintain health. Practice began around 3000 years ago.