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1
Q

what is sex?

A

– biological traits of men and women (chromosomal, gonadal, hormonal, sex organs)

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2
Q

What is gender?

A

– social, cultural and psychological traits linked to males and females

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3
Q

what is the sexual continuum?

A

seven-point scale that shows the spectrum of sexuality as Kingsley though of it.

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4
Q

what is the significance of the sexual continuum?

A

– Humans are not two discrete populations (homosexual and heterosexual), the living world is a

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5
Q

what is essentialism?

A

the belief that gender is natural to who you are
explained by:
—brain studies
— sociobiology
—Freud

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6
Q

what are the main critiques of essentialism?

A

1) Essentialists ignore the historical and cultural variability of gender and sexuality

2) Essentialists ignore that gender differences are declining rapidly and in some cases, have already disappeared.

3) the research evidence employed by essentialists is often deeply flawed

4) essentialists exaggerate the degree to which gender differences are unchangeable

5) essentials offer explanations for gender differences that ignore the role of power

6) essentialists tend to generalize from the average, ignoring variations within gender groups

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7
Q

how does sex inequality manifest itself? how is it perpetuated?

A

1) gender stratification

2) Prestige (social ranking and respect, where female jobs have less) (daycare worker vs plumber)

3) Power (the ability to impose one’s will on others)

4) Wealth (economic resources to pay for the necessities of life)

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8
Q

What are the findings of ‘The Body Beautiful’

A

about how women navigate the social terrain of appearances

1) girls suggested that they are not passive victims of beauty images

2) looking between means of access to social groups and power

3) other girls (not boys) were the most important audience and their harshest critics (so both men and women maintain the patriarchy)

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9
Q

it is assumed that the biological (_____) fashions the social (_____), but does the existence of gender variation indicate that gender is a social construction?

A

sex fashions gender

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10
Q

the relationship between gender and sex is thought of through two different lenses

A

—essentialism
—social construction
the belief in two sexes has resulted in a belief in two genders

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11
Q

What is social constructionism as it relates to sex and gender?

A

gender is made up, a construct
characteristics of this belief:
— warfare and conquest (gender is power and control)
—plow agriculture (gender-based division of labour)
— separation of public and private spheres (“capitalism is the historical defeat of women”)

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12
Q

How did ‘brain studies’ contribute to essentialism?

A

thought that men and women used different sides of their brain
—left hemisphere was associated with language (women) and the right was associated with visual and special skills (men)

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13
Q

How did ‘sociobiology’ contribute to essentialism?

A

“those who resolve problems pass on their genes resulting in gender differences

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14
Q

How did Freud contribute to essentialism?

A

—–Oedipus complex (a young boy wishes to have sex with his mother and disdains his father for having sex and being satisfied before him)
—–Electra complex (girl’s psychosexual competition with her mother for possession of her father)
—gendered and responsible for why people are masculine and feminine

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15
Q

how do essentialists ignore the historical and cultural variability of gender and sexuality?

A

– there are variations of gender across cultures
—Margaret Mead and the Arapesh in new guinea showed gender role reversal, proving gender is not natural
—rape rates vary widely across cultures, societies change without any genetic change
— the status of women in society has changed dramatically in the last 50 years, that is not genetic

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16
Q

how do essentialists ignore declining gender differences?

A

— New studies show no difference in verbal abilities between genders. also that mathematics is not genetic towards men, but actually favours women.

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17
Q

how is the research employed by essentialists flawed?

A

sociobiologists have not been able to identify any of the genes that, they claim, cause male jealousy, female nurturance, or the unequal division of labour between men and women.

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18
Q

how do essentialists generalize from the average and ignore variations within gender groups?

A

think of the aggressiveness chart, and how different interpretations can be made in favour of opinions. how do you define violence? what is aggressive?

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19
Q

what are some of the economic inequalities between men and women?

A

1) Double work day (kin keeping, women have two jobs, work AND family)

2) sex segregation

3) sex-typing (stereotyping by sex, categorizing people for different jobs and pays)

4) glass ceiling (women reach a certain point where they cannot rise in the ranks any longer) (Wallace and Clement, men are the corporate elite)

5) non-standard work (job vs a career. work for a contract, irregular, no benefits)

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20
Q

what is gender stratification?

A

a system in which men, in general, hold more power, prestige and wealth than women.

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21
Q

why have women become so involved in the labour force, especially since 1961?

A
  1. an increase in the demand for service sector workers
  2. a decrease in children born
  3. family finances (need a dual income)
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22
Q

what are four reasons why women earn less than men?

A
  1. gender differences in characteristics that influence pay rates (education, experience, seniority)
  2. women are involved in sex-segregated, non-standard work
  3. simple discrimination – even on the same jobs, women are often paid less
  4. a general devaluation of the kind of work performed by women (nurses, teachers)
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23
Q

What do socialist feminists believe are the source of women’s oppression?

A

capitalism and the patriarchy

follows Marx’s work on how capitalism mixes with the patriarchy to disempower women

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24
Q

what are the principles of socialist feminism?

A

— bost capitalism and the patriarchy must be altered or eliminated to free women

—capitalists benefit greatly from women’s work (including that of raising children) but do not pay for all of this work

— state intervened with social programs (why should the state care about women’s issues? We want to control women and get them to produce workers)

—socialist feminists believe that the laws of the state vane be changed for positive social change in society.

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25
what are the principles of radical feminism?
1. capitalism has little to do with female oppression 2. women are oppressed because they are women (no other factors) 3. the state is the male state 4. men, by nature, are aggressive and need to dominate women (man-hating, and just not true) 5. the state is an enemy, not an ally
26
how do socialist feminists feel about the state?
critical of the state but want to improve it the laws of the state can be changed for positive social change in society
27
how do capitalists benefit from women raising children
women are working for capitalism even when they are not in the workforce. they socialize children to be the next generation of consumers and workers. they foster the protestant work ethic, which is why the state is pro-life.
28
how do radical feminists feel about the state?
the state is male and therefore an enemy
29
intersectionalist beliefs in feminism
--- oppression exists in many forms and is cumulative (how indigenous women experience the patriarchy differently than white women) ---gender is a social construct ---activism based on outlining how gender is socially constructed and an eliminating unwanted inequality
30
what is the social self
what sociologists examine I, ME, and the generalized other
31
what were the four groups of Lethbridge as identified by Mathews?
the elite the "wannabees" "life in the Middle" the fringe
32
who are the elite as defined by Mathews?
they know they look good, they have lost of power and they use it
33
who are the "wannabees" as defined by Mathews?
"if i could just change one thing about myself I'd be elite" an insecure state of being
34
who is in the "life in the middle" as defined by Mathews?
the happiest in the long run, participate in extracurriculars, focused on school, build themselves up off of other things than looks
35
who is in the fringe as defined by Mathews?
feel like they will never be elite, no strain to do so marginalized, not treated well
36
who is the happiest group as defined by Mathews?
the life in the middle
37
which group has the lowest self-esteem as defined by Mathews?
the wannabees
38
what is a gender role
a set of attitudes and expectations concerning behaviour that relates to the sex we are assigned at birth
39
liberal feminists believe...
securing equal rights for women in all phases of public life, including access to education, jobs, and pay. associated with the fight for pay equity
40
Kachuck's three main criticisms of essentialist feminism
1) it universalizes women, assuming that all women experience gender alike 2) it confuses natural instincts with strategies that women have devised for coping with the demands of a patriarchal society 3) it encourages us to see women as "social housekeepers in worlds that men built"
41
postmodern feminists believe...
have strong ideas of social constructionism, directly opposing essentialists.
42
queer theory
the gender continuum male and female are not binary opposites, gender identity is not biological, and individuals preform along a continuum in different times and situations.
43
what are the four ways of acting out male gender roles?
1) hegemonic masculinity (practices that serve to normalize and naturalize men's dominance and women's subordination) 2) subordinate masculinity (behaviours or presentations of self that could threaten the legitimacy of hegemonic masculinity. ex. gay men, effeminate men) 3) marginalized masculinity (the adaptation of masculinity to race and class. how a black man could be a small business owner but unable to hail a cab) 4) complicit masculinities (do not embody hegemonic practices but benefit from the way hegemonic masculinities construct gender roles and regimes)
44
What is religion?
a system of meaning for interpreting the world. it is a unified system of beliefs with a supernatural referent. "our existence has meaning" different from a cult in longevity and infrastructure
45
what is a humanist perspective?
a non-religious perspective and often science-based (such as communism). "our existence has no meaning, we have to give it meaning"
46
is religion whithering in Canada or are we seeing a resurgence?
according to Reginald Bibby, many Canadians are pursuing life's mystery and meanings, but few are turning to traditional religion. he blames the religious figures for the decline. traditional religion does not seem to connect some people with the spirituality they need Atlantic Canada is the most religious
47
how did Marx perceive religion?
1) religion and god are a human creation 2) religion is the opium of people 3) religion maintains an unequal, exploitive society 4) it delays the inevitable transition to communism 5) religion will eventually fade away
48
how did Durkheim perceive religion?
1) religion is a social/human construction 2) religion contributes to the collective conscience (functional, contributes to norms and beliefs) 3) religion identifies things as sacred or profane 4) religion will continue to impact people and their behaviour
49
how did Weber perceive religion?
1. The Protestant Ethic and The Spirit of Capitalism (the reward for hard work is more hard work) 2. we should examine religion in terms of how it affects the way we behave 3. religion has been instrumental in shaping modern-day capitalism 4. religion creates power for some political and religious leaders
50
what are the levels of personal religiosity in Canada?
Bibby's way of assessing religion's impact on us: 1. belief (in God) 2. practice (prayer, how often do you attend church) 3. experience (see or speak directly to God) 4. Knowledge (knowledge of the Bible)
51
what are the sources of religion?
1. reflection (if you have more self-reflection, religion will mean more). this is not unique to religion. 2. socialization (*stands to empirical tests*)(unless you have socialization you cannot have religiosity 3. deprivation (if you are unhappy, you can use God as a form of escapism)
52
what were Durkheim's functions of religion?
1. fosters cohesion (also conflict) 2. offers support during crisis (charities) 3. addresses ultimate questions (where science cannot) 4. provides social service 5. legitimizes political authority 6. legitimizes social change
53
how did Weber and Marx differ in their views of religion and capitalism?
Weber: religion ---> capitalism Marx: capitalism ---> religion
54
what is collective religiosity?
to determine how people behave collectively, we can asses regions as splintering from other churches (church-sect typology) or by taking an organizational approach (analyzing church like any other institution, ie prisons, corporations)
55
what is the organizational approach to assessing religion?
assessing religion in terms of: 1. the source of its members (who is turning to religion? by whom?) 2. the goals of the group (convert? social justice?) 3. norms and roles to establish purpose (how do you control people to process your church in the way you want? How do you control people who come by free will and are volunteers? Sanctions!!) 4. sanction to ensure conformity (general punishment, fear-mongering, hell) (social sanctions in small communities) (people want rites of passage!!) 5. its overall "success"
56
what were professor Bibby's findings about religion and socialization
Professor Bibby is very confident that if we look at where religion in Canada gets its membership, it is from families. Very few people stray from their family's religion.
57
what are the sources of religion?
1. reflection (if you have more self-reflection, religion will mean more). this is not unique to religion. 2. socialization (*stands to empirical tests*)(you cannot have religiosity without socialization. it is necessary in religion, but not sufficient in its own, needs personal will) 3. deprivation (if you are unhappy, you can use GOD and religion as escapism) not statistically significant
58
what is the state of religion in Canada?
1. high degrees of religious tolerance and separation of church and state 2. Catholics and protestants have the most followers, but the numbers are now declining 3. Islamic, Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist followers are increasing due to immigration
59
what is Bibby's Fragmented Gods?
the fate of religion depends of the ability of religious groups to meet the interests and needs of Canadians Canadians are turning to fragments of traditional regions. an eclectic personalized religion.
60
libertarian theology
school of catholic thought that advocates for social justice for the poor.
61
what is crime?
involves breaking a law
62
what is deviance?
non-normative behaviour. a functionalist conception. separate from crime. like getting a full-body tattoo
63
what is the significance of the crime funnel?
all crime (detected or undetected) detected crime (reported or unreported) reported crime (founded or unfounded) founded crime crime taken to court (convicted or aquitted) conviction incarceration
64
what are the key components of moral panic?
1. concern (awareness that the group in question may be harmful) 2. hostility (the bothered group become folk devils) 3. consensus (a large number of people become concerned about the group) 4. disproportionality (exaggerated fear) 5. volatility (moral panics arise and fade quickly) ex. Y2K
65
what is pluralism in relation to law?
argue that laws reflect what society deems important. everyone has a say in the construction of laws. important norms are categorized as laws
66
what is conflict theory in relation to law?
argue that the bourgeoisie largely constructs the laws. the lower classes are criminalized concerned with class biases in law construction the 1% determine the shape and contour of the laws
67
what is post-modernism in relation to law?
maintain that society socially constructs crime. those who generate and disseminate crime new control the law concerned with class biases in law construction
68
what is strain theory in relation to crime?
grew out of functionalism suggests that people behave deviantly when they are strained (economically and socially) Robert Merton claimed that crime and deviance are a result of rising expectations and falling realizations
69
what is learning theory in relation to crime?
people simply learn crime and deviance just like any other kind of behaviour people learn by interacting with other deviants; by "differential association" (role modelling) people learn how to commit crimes and attitudes to accomplish it (people learn techniques of neutralization)
70
what is control theory in relation to crime?
people are deviant becasue being deviant is really enjoyable people conform because they have been taught self-contril by their parents, teachers, friends, and reliaves since girls are more controlled than boys, they commit on;ly 20% of crimes.
71
what is the labelling theory in relation to crime?
people behave deviantly when they are labelled by society as such labelling has a measure of power over people that may lead to further deviance (as a self-fulfilling prophecy) also proves how internalized self-control is the most effective, where we must pay attention to how we talk about ourselves and others.
72
what are consensus crimes?
very harmful crimes that carry the harshest punishment mala in se (evil in itself)
73
what are conflict crimes?
less agreement, conflict in how to interpret them mala prohibita (wrong because it is prohibited)
74
what is social deviation?
a type of deviance Hagan refers to legal, but stigmatized behaviour ex-convicts
75
what is social diversion?
a type of deviance Hagan refers o how people appear to others a person with many piercings, for example
76
what are the two types of societal controls?
informal and formal controls
77
what is formal control?
a type of control by the state and its institutions less impactful than informal controls (cannot police your way out of it)
78
what is an informal control?
a type of control exerted by friends, family, and peers. the most effective form of control, especially if learned at a young age.
79
what is the most successful form of control?
internalized self-control
80
of reported crime, about 48% is ____, while 20% is considered _______. The rest is deemed "other" offences such as mischief and bail violations
property crime violent crime
81
what did Becker believe about crusaders and panics?
Becker argued that there are moral crusaders in society that try t change the behaviour of others. that is, they believe that serious evil exists that must be eliminated, resulting in moral panic.
82
what are the explanations of law?
pluralism conflict theory postmodernism
83
merton's typology
categorizes people by their ability to accept the culturally induced goals (American dream) and their ability to achieve those goals the characters are: conformity innovation ritualism retreatism rebellion
84
what does it mean to be in conformity according to Merton?
you accept the American dream and you have the ability to achieve it don't deviate or engage in crime
85
what does it mean to be in innovation according to Merton?
you accept the American dream, but you cannot attain it ex. people who steal, drug dealers
86
what does it mean to be in ritualism according to Merton?
you reject the American dream, despite it being attainable little ambition, just go through the rituals of life ex. nepo baby
87
what does it mean to be in retreatism according to Merton?
you reject the American dream and you cannot attain it retreat from society, homeless, mental disorder
88
what does it mean to be in rebellion according to Merton?
the American dream is rejected, but they want to change what the dream looks like. they may or may not be able to achieve the dream as it is ex. communists and terrorists.
89
why do people conform if we can get away with deviance?
people conform because they have been taught self-control by their parents, teachers, friends, and relatives.
90
what is a stigma? what are the types?
a stigma is a human attribute that is seen to discredit an individual's social identity Goffman identified three types: bodily stigma moral stigma tribal stigma
91
what is bodily stigma?
abnormalities of the body, physical deformities
92
what is moral stigma?
one's character having unnatural passions, treacherous and rigid beliefs, and dishonesty. mental disorder, homosexuality, imprisonment, suicide attempts, radical political behvaiour
93
what is tribal stigma?
The stigma of race, nation, and religion. can be transmitted through lineages.
94
what is subcultural theory?
Cohen describes it as the theory that youths drawn to crime are those who, having failed to succeed in middle-class institutions (like school), become socialized into a delinquent subculture in which the values of the middle class instituations become inverted builds on Merton's strain theory.
95
Which of the following sociologists believed that religion performed a "gap-filling" function?
Durkheim, believed that religion would persist because humans are impulsive and want answers to ultimate questions immediately
96
True or False? In terms of attendance at religious services, Catholicism has experienced a consistent decline since the mid-1960s, while Protestants have experienced a slight increase since the mid-1970s.
True!
97
Marx believed that people became religious because of _____
deprivation caused by the effect of capitalism
98
Who made up the majority of Falwell’s ‘Moral Majority’?
conservative Christians

Soci 201 (2 decks)

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