Final Flashcards
(128 cards)
1
Q
7 properties of life
A
- Order
- Adaptation
- Responds to environment
- Reproduction
- Growth & development
- Energy processing
- Regulation
2
Q
Taxonomic classes
A
- Domain
- Kingdom
- Phylum
- Class
- Order
- Family
- Genus
- Species
3
Q
3 domains of life
A
Bacteria
Archaea
Eukarya
4
Q
Positive vs. negative feedback
A
Negative: opposite direction (I.e. blood pressure)
Positive: same direction (I.e. fever & virus)
5
Q
Proteomics
A
Study of sets of proteins
6
Q
Proteome
A
Entire set of proteins in a cell, tissue, or organ
7
Q
Genomics
A
Study of genes
8
Q
Genome
A
Complete set of genes in an organism
9
Q
Concepts of natural selection
A
If there is:
- heritable variations
- competition
- adaptation
Then there will be:
- more adaptive variations
- better suited to environment
- driving force of adaptation
10
Q
Who is Charles Darwin?
A
- contributed to knowledge of evolutionary biology
- wrote “on the origin of species”
11
Q
Element
A
Substance that can’t be broken down
12
Q
Compound
A
Molecule of 2+ different atoms of different elements
13
Q
Molecule
A
2 atoms bonded together
14
Q
Difference between proton, neutron, & electron
A
Proton: positive charge, 1 AMU mass, found in nucleus
Neutron: no charge, 1 AMU mass, found in nucleus
Electron: negative charge, no mass, found in electron cloud around nucleus
15
Q
Atomic number, atomic weight, atomic mass
A
Atomic number: number of protons (& electrons in neutral atom)
Atomic weight: average mass
Atomic mass: sum of protons & neutrons in the nucleus
16
Q
Ionic Bonds
A
- electronegative atoms steal valence electrons
- creates ions?
17
Q
Covalent bonds
A
- forms when pairs of electrons are shared between atoms
- forms molecules
- single, double, & triple bonds
18
Q
Hydrogen bonds
A
- form between 2 polar compounds with hydrogen
- partial positive attracts to partial negative
19
Q
Van Der Waals interactions
A
- electron hot spots create weak bond
20
Q
Bond strength hierarchy
A
- Covalent bonds
- Ionic bonds
- Hydrogen bonds
- Van der waals interactions
21
Q
Cohesion vs. Adhesion in water
A
Cohesion: ability to stick to itself because of hydrogen bonds
Adhesion: ability to stick to other molecules
22
Q
Specific heat
A
Amount of heat needed for 1g to change by 1 degree Celsius
23
Q
Heat of vaporization
A
Energy needed to change 1g of liquid to gas
24
Q
Surface tension
A
Measure of difficulty to stretch/break the surface of a liquid
25
Hydrophilic vs. hydrophobic
Hydrophilic: affinity to water
Hydrophobic: aversion to water
26
Homogenous solution
Compounds are chemically bound
27
Heterogenous solution
Compounds are NOT chemically bound
28
Colloidal suspension
Large organic compounds dissolved in solution
29
Solvent vs. solute
Solvent: dissolves other substance
Solute: gets dissolved
30
Heat vs. temperature
Heat: thermal energy transferred from 1 body of matter to another
Temperature: measurement of thermal energy in a body
31
Thermal energy vs. potential energy
Thermal energy: kinetic energy of molecules/atoms
Potential energy: stored energy dependent on location
32
pH scale
Acidic - pH < 7
Neutral - pH = 7
Base - pH > 7
33
Why is water a good solvent?
Because it’s polar
34
Organic vs. inorganic compounds
Organic: contains carbon & hydrogen
Inorganic: does not have BOTH carbon & hydrogen
35
How many valence electrons does carbon have?
4
36
Structural isomers
Differ in the arrangement of covalent bonds
37
Cis-trans isomers
Differ in arrangement about a double bond
38
Enantiomers
Isomers, non-superimposable mirror image
39
The 7 functional groups
Methyl
Hydroxyl
Carbonyl (aldehyde & ketone)
Carboxyl
Amino
Phosphate
Sulfhydryl
40
Methyl
Ch3
41
Hydroxyl
OH, alcohols
42
Carbonyl
Double bond oxygen = carbon
43
Carboxyl
COOH/Co2H
44
Phosphate
PO4(2-)
45
Sulfhydryl
SH
46
Define carbs, lipids, proteins, & nucleic acids
Carbs: simple sugars & polymers of sugars
Lipids: Fatty acids & glycerol, makes steroids & fats
Protein: amino acids & polymers
Nucleic acids: nucleotides & polymers creating DNA & RNA
47
Monosaccharides, disaccharides, & polysaccharides
Monosaccharides: simple sugars, building blocks for complex carbs
Disaccharides: 2 sugars held together by glycosidic linkage
Polysaccharides: 3+ sugars used for energy storage & structure
48
4 major polymers of glucose & their functions
Starch: storage for plants
Glycogen: storage for animals
Cellulose: structure for plants
Chitin: structure for anthropoids
49
3 main types of lipids & their functions
Fats: energy storage, insulation, & padding the body
Phospholipids: essential component of cell membrane. Phospholipid bilayer
Steroids: sex hormones & cholesterol
50
Major components of nucleotides
5 carbon sugar
Phosphate group
Nitrogenous base
51
4 levels of protein structure
Primary: amino acid sequence
Secondary: alpha helix & beta pleated sheets from the polypeptides, not R groups
Tertiary: interactions of R groups, globular shape
Quaternary: 2+ polypeptide chains bonded together
52
Which organelles are found in plant cells but not animal cells?
Central vacuole
chloroplasts
Cell wall
53
Which organisms are eukaryotic & prokaryotic?
Eukaryotic - eukarya
Prokaryotic - bacteria & archaea
54
What are the functions of organelles in eukaryotic cells?
Nucleus- DNA storage
Ribosomes- Protein synthesis
Rough ER- Attachment site for ribosomes
Smooth ER- Lipid synthesis
Golgi- Package proteins & molecules
Lysosomes- Digestion
Peroxisomes- Break fatty acids chains & create hydrogen peroxide
Vacuoles- Storage
Mitochondria- Cellular respiration
Vesicles- Transport
Flagella & Cilia- Motility
55
Compare/contrast cilia & flagella
Flagella: longer, fewer, & whip-like motion
Cilia: shorter, numerous, & back/forth motion
Both used for motility, have basal body, & motor proteins
56
Diffusion vs facilitated diffusion
Diffusion: movement of particles from high to low concentration
Facilitated diffusion: passive movement through a protein
57
Osmosis
Diffusion of water from high to low concentration
58
Active transport
movement against the natural gradient
59
Functions of cell membrane proteins
- transport
- enzymatic activity
- cell-cell recognition
- intercellular joining
- attachment to cytoskeleton & matrix
60
Glycolipids vs. glycoproteins
glycolipids: sugars & lipids
Glycoproteins: sugars & proteins
61
Functions of the sodium-potassium pump
- Uses ATP
- 2 K+ in, 2NA+ out
- Sets resting transmembrane potential
- Important for muscle & nerve cells
62
Types of endocytosis & exocytosis
Phagocytosis: “cell eating”
Pinocytosis: “cell drinking”
Receptor-Mediated endocytosis: legends bind to receptors
63
How would plant vs. animal cells react to isotonic, hypertonic, & hypotonic solutions?
Hypertonic: both shrivel & may die
Isotonic: Best for animal, neutral for plant
Hypotonic: animal swells & may burst. Plant experiences turgor pressure, which is preferred.
64
Metabolism
Total of all chemical reactions in an organism
65
Catabolic vs. anabolic
Catabolic: breaks down reactants, releases energy
Anabolic: builds up reactants, uses energy
66
Exergonic vs. endergonic
Exergonic: Outward energy, -Delta G value
Endergonic: Inward energy, +Delta G value
67
How do enzymes speed up reactions?
They lower the activation energy
68
Kinetic vs. potential energy + examples
Kinetic: energy of motions i.e. a river
Potential: energy of position i.e. water behind a dam
69
3 laws of thermodynamics
1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed
2. Every transfer of energy causes an increase in entropy in the form of heat energy
3. As the universe reaches complete zero, entropy becomes more constant
70
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate
71
How to inhibit enzymes
1. PH change
2. Temp change
3. Ion concentration change
4. Competitive & non-competitive inhibitors
5. Cofactors
72
Aerobic vs. Anaerobic respiration
Aerobic: with oxygen, efficient
Anaerobic: without oxygen
73
Lactic acid fermentation vs. alcohol fermentation
Alcohol: pyruvate converted to acetaldehyde & ethanol. Irreversible
Lactic acid: pyruvate reduced to NADH, forming lactate then oxidized to reform NAD+. Reversible
74
Oxidation vs. reduction
Oxidation: loss of electrons, more positive change
Reduction: gain of electrons, less positive charge
75
Glycolysis
- Occurs in cytoplasm outside mitochondria
- Cell invests 2 ATP, substrate level phosphorylation produces 4 ATP & converts 2 NAD+ to 2 NADH
- NADH & H+ ions sent to electron transport chain
76
Intermediate Reaction
- In outer membrane of mitochondria
- Pyruvate turned into acetyl coenzyme A
- Reaction also produces NADH & CO2
77
Citric Acid Cycle
- In matrix of mitochondria
- Acetyl coenzyme A broken down into CO2
- Harvests electrons & hydrogen ions from acetyl coA to use in the ETC
- per pyruvate: 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH
78
Oxidative Phosphorylation
- Occurs on crystal of mitochondria
1st- Electron transport chain, series of proteins harness energy from electrons. Oxygen is the final acceptor
2nd- Chemiosmosis, uses ETC to make ATP
79
Obligate vs. facultative anaerobes
Obligate: cannot survive in oxygen
Facultative: can survive with or without oxygen
80
Heterotroph vs. Autotroph
Heterotroph: consumers, unable to create their own energy source
Autotrophs: producers, creates their own energy source
81
Mesophyll
Layer of tissue in middle of leaf that contains chloroplasts
82
Stomata
Opening on underside of leaf that allows O2 to leave & CO2 to enter
83
Wavelength
Distance between crests of electromagnetic waves (short= high, long= low)
84
Photon
Packet of light energy (matter & energy)
85
Types of photosynthetic pigments
Chlorophyll a: primary pigment, absorbs blue & red light, P680 & P700 molecules
Chlorophyll b: Broadens the spectrum used for photosynthesis
Carotones: Absorbs excessive light that would damage chlorophyll (i.e. xanthophylls)
86
Order of events in photosynthesis
Photo system 2
Electron Transport Chain
Photo system 1
Calvin Cycle
87
RuBP
Initial carbon acceptor molecule that is remade in Calvin cycle
88
G3P
Sugar that comes out of the Calvin cycle
89
Rubisco
Key enzyme used in Calvin cycle, sometimes binds to oxygen instead of carbon dioxide which is problematic
90
3 main plant metabolisms
C3: Normal Calvin cycle
C4: Spatial separation of Calvin cycle & light dependent reactions
CAM: Time separation of Calvin cycle & light dependent reactions
91
Chemiosmosis
Uses H+ gradient to move ATP synthase, creating ATP
92
What are the purposes of cell division?
- Growth
- Repair
- Replacement
- Reproduction (asexual)
93
Sexual vs. asexual reproduction
Sexual: genetic info from 2 parents
Asexual: genetic info from 1 parent
94
Binary Fission
1 cell splits to become 2 cells. Occurs in prokaryotes & lower protists
95
Mitosis
“Simple” eukaryotic cellular reproduction, makes exact copies. Haploid or diploid cells.
96
Meiosis
“Reduction” division for formation of gametes in sexually reproducing multicellular organisms. Results in non-identical cells
97
Phases of mitosis
Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase & cytokinesis
98
Cytokinesis
Cell physically divides
99
What are the interphase sub-phases major events?
Gap 1: high rates of protein synthesis, production of new organelles, division of mitochondria/chloroplasts, & cell doubles in size
Synthesis: cell replicates its DNA so there are 2 identical copies
Gap 2: Cell undergoes additional growth & makes final preparations for mitosis
100
Cell plate vs. cleavage furrow
Cell plate: formed in plant cells for cytokinesis
Cleavage furrow: formed in animal cells for cytokinesis
101
Main types of inhibition for cell division
Checkpoints: cell cycle stops until “go ahead” signal is received
Density dependent: crowded cell stops dividing
Anchorage dependent: cell must be attached to substrate to divide
Growth factors: proteins released by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide
102
Benign vs. malignant/metastasized tumors
Benign: does not break apart & invade other tissues
Malignant: breaks apart & invades other tissues
103
Diploid vs. haploid
Diploid: 2 copies of each chromosome
Haploid: 1 copy of each chromosome
104
Sister chromatids vs. homologous chromosomes
Sister chromatids: identical copies
Homologous chromosomes: have the same gene loci but may have different alleles
105
Mitosis vs. meiosis change in number of chromosomes
Mitosis: 2 daughter cells with the same # of chromosomes as parent
Meiosis: 4 daughter cells with 1/2 as many chromosomes as parent
106
Number of chromosomes in human body vs. gamete
Human: 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
Gamete: 23 chromosomes
107
When does crossing over occur?
Prophase 1
108
Define the various errors of meiosis
Non-disjunction: failure of chromosomes to separate properly
Deletion: loss of fragment, most detrimental
Duplication: repetition of fragment, may increase cancer risk
Inversion: reattachment of fragment in reverse order
109
Gregor Mendel
Father of modern genetics
- Austrian scientist
- published in 1867
110
Types of inheritance patterns + examples
Complete dominance: dominant allele completely masks (i.e. pea plants
Incomplete dominance: homologous dominant + homologous recessive = blend of phenotypes (snapdragons)
Co-dominance: both dominant alleles expressed (i.e. AB blood type)
Multiple alleles: >1 alleles affect a single characteristic (i.e. alleles for ABO blood)
Polygenic: 1 phenotype from additive of 2+ genes (i.e. skin color)
Epistatis: gene at 1 locus alters phenotype expression of gene at 2nd locus (i.e. mice coat color)
Pleiotropic: 1 gene influences many characteristics (i.e. hereditary diseases)
Sex-linked: Genes located on sex chromosomes
111
Loci
Location
112
Allele
Alternate form of a gene, located on separate homologous chromosomes
113
Monohybrid vs. dihybrid vs. test cross
Mono: 1 trait
Di: 2 traits
Test: Breeding individual of unknown genotype to known homo. Recessive.
114
Phenotype vs. genotype
Phenotype: protein, or the physical expression of a trait
Genotype: DNA, or the genetic makeup of the trait
115
Homozygous vs. heterozygous vs. carrier
Homo: both homologous chromosomes have the same allele (AA or aa)
Hetero: homologous chromosomes have different alleles (Aa)
Carrier: heterozygous individuals who carry recessive allele but have a normal pheenotype
116
Sex linked traits
X-linked traits
- only the X chromosome carries allele
117
Components of nucleic acids
1. Sugar phosphate backbone
- 5-carbon sugar
- Phosphate group
2. Nitrogenous bases
- Purines (adenine & guanine)
- Pyrimidines (thymine, cytosine, uracil)
118
Nitrogenous bases in DNA vs RNA
DNA: Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine
RNA: Adenine, Uracil, Cytosine, Guanine
119
Complementary base pairing in DNA vs. RNA
DNA: Adenine + Thymine, Cytosine + Guanine
RNA: Adenine + Uracil, Cytosine + Guanine
120
Transcription
Synthesis of mRNA under direction of DNA
121
Translation
synthesis of proteins under direction of mRNA
122
3 types of RNA
Messenger: mRNA, read by ribosome to make amino acid sequence
Transfer: tRNA, transfers amino acids to ribosomes
Ribosomal: rRNA, makes up ribosome that reads mRNA
123
Codons
- triplets of nitrogenous bases
Start codon: segment of mRNA that occurs after promoter
Sense codon: codes for amino acids
Nonsense codon: stops codons
124
DNA polymerase
- Builds off RNA primers to synthesize DNA
- Adds nucleotides through complementary base pairing
- Proofreads/corrects improper pairings
125
RNA polymerase
- enzyme that creates the mRNA transcript
- pries DNA strands apart & connects RNA nucleotides
- Uracil not thymine
- transcription only produces single strand of RNA
126
Helicase
Untwists & separates DNA strands for replication
127
Topoisomerase
Corrects over-winding & relieves tension ahead of replication forks by breaking, swiveling, & rejoining DNA strands
128
Okazaki fragments
Short sections of DNA formed on the lagging strand
