Final

Question 1

What is bottom-up processing.

Answer 1

In a model of stages of cognition it represents information going from the sensory stores to the LTM

Question 2

What is the definition of cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 2

It is the study of how different parts of our brain function during information processing

Question 3

What is a stimulus response scheme and who repped it?

Answer 3

Skinner wrote a book arguing that only behaviors that can be tested should be looked at. A stimulus reponse scheme works by assosiated stimulus with response without mental operation

Question 4

What is arousal?

Answer 4

A physiological state that influences mental capacity to certain tasks

Question 5

What is automatic processing and what is its characteristics (4)?

Answer 5

Automatic processing is processing that happens without conscious thought. It is very quick, done without conscious thought or effort, doesn’t interfere with other processes. Low error rate. This is in comparison to controlled processing.

Question 6

what is contextual effects?

Answer 6

The influence of surroundings on pattern recognition

Question 7

What is enduring disposition. What type of attention (vol or invol) is it associated with?

Answer 7

An automatic influence is the the automatic influence that guides people’s attention. Associated with involuntary attention. In comparison to momentary intention.

Question 8

What is momentary intention?

Answer 8

It is the change in focus caused by a person’s task/intention consciously influencing it. Associated with voluntary attention.

Question 9

What is the difference between a filter model, and attenuation model, and a late-stage selection model? Does it relate to capacity or bottleneck theories?

Answer 9

-Broadbent’s filter model: attention is limited by a filter that only lets one stimulus from one channel through at a time
- Treismann’s attenutation model: attention allows many inputs through, but attenuates less important/focused on inputs.
- Deutch and Deutsch late selection model: attention is wide, allowing a lot through, but only a little is remembered due to constraints on STM and LTM

Question 10

What is a multimode theory of attention?

Answer 10

It suggests that individuals have control over the bottleneck’s location, and that different tasks require different bottlenecks

Question 11

What is the stroop effect? What does it show?

Answer 11

It takes longer to think of the color of the ink than the color the word spells. It shows that controlled processes can trump automatic processes with a bit of effort

Question 12

What is an absolute judgement task? Which study was it used in?

Answer 12

An absolute judgement task is when you ask a subject to rate a stimulus on a scale? Used in Miller’s study of STM.

Question 13

What is decay theory and inference theory? How are they different and which was supported by experimental evidence?

Answer 13

Decay theory: the theory that STM information decays over time
inference theory: the theory that STM information is kicked out as new information comes in. This is supported by Waugh and Norman study.

Question 14

What are the three parts of working memory? What do they do?

Answer 14

The three parts are the phonological loop, which allows for manipulation of auditory info, the visuospatial sketchpad, which allows for manipulation of visual spatial info, and the central executive, which allows for decision making. There is also the episodic buffer, which allows for use of past memories

Question 15

What do we do to search memory: exhaustive or self-terminating search

Answer 15

S. Sternberg showed that recall correlated to the number of objects given, not the order the object was put in

Question 16

What is the difference between a conceptually driven process and a data-driven process?

Answer 16

-Conceptually driven: influenced by strategies
- data driven: influenced by stimulus materials

Question 17

What is explicit and implicit memory? Which correlates to episodic memory and which correlates to semantic memory? Direct and indirect memory?

Answer 17

-Explicit memory is consciously known past events, which is associated to episodic and direct memory.
-Implicit memory is not explicitly based on past events, which is associated to semantic memory and indirect memory.

Question 18

What is the primacy effect? What is the recency effect? What are they caused by?

Answer 18

Primacy effect: the beginning of lists are remembered more because they are rehearsed more and so can get into LTM
recency effect: the end of lists are remembered more because they have been recently stored in the STM

Question 19

What are the characteristics of STM and LTM?

Answer 19

STM: Short time limit, limited number of items/capacity, acoustic codes
LTM: unlimited capacity and duration, defined by semantic codes

Question 20

What are metacognitive processes? What are control processes? Include three examples each.

Answer 20

• Control processes help move information from STM to LTM. They include rehersal, coding, and imagery (knowledge aquisition)
• metacogntive processes select strategy for info processing. They include setting short-term goals, scheduling, and self-reflection

Question 21

What is the encoding specificity principle?

Answer 21

The encoding specificity principle states that the best recall cue for something is ones that relate to the method in which it was encoded

Question 22

What is the level of processing model?

Answer 22

-Its a model that suggests that there are different ways to encode material and that that effect recall. Structural encoding is the least deep and semantic processing is the most deep.

Question 23

What is primary and secondary distinctiveness?

Answer 23

Primary distinctiveness is the main characteristic that differentiates the object. Secondary distinctiveness is the other ways the object is differentiated in the LTM

Question 24

What are the differences between sensory store, STM and LTM when it comes to entry, maintenance, format, capacity, and duration

Answer 24

Sensory store: preattentive entery, no maintenance possible, no encoding, large capacity, decay leads to loss of a few seconds
STM: attention directed entry, continued attention required for maintenance, information is formated into a memory code, limited capacity, 30 second decay rate because of displacement
LTM: control processes allow entry, retrieval/repetition allows for maintenance, largly semantic codes, very large, interference can lead to variable decay

Question 25

What is emotional and processing distinctivness?

Answer 25

Emotional distinctivness: The item is intense emotionally process distinctivness: the creation of the code is what makes it distinct

Question 26

What is a transfer appropriate processing approach and what theory does it stem from?

Answer 26

It is using a strategy that allows for easy recall of material by learning it in a way that improves recall. It stems from encoding specificity principle

Question 27

What is a transfer appropriate processing approach and what theory does it stem from?

Question 28

What is the dual-coding theory? How is it used in mnemonics

Answer 28

Encoding a stimulus visually and verbally improves recall. Visual and verbal codes are independent but help recall and enforce eachother (Mnemonics)

Question 29

Visual codes are (detailed/vague) and are (numerous/limited) in capacity

Answer 29

Vague and numerous

Question 30

What is parallel processing and what are its advantages? What test showed this?

Answer 30

-Parallel processing: more than one item is processed in knowledge representation. Associated with visuospatial representation. -Nielsen and smith, 1973: found that students who saw a visual representation of a face preformed better on retention tests than those who saw verbal descriptions

Question 31

What is the keyword method and what theory is it under?

Answer 31

The keyword method uses visual representation of new words to learn them. It requires that a new word be linked to an old 'keyword' that then is associated in a visual image. This is under the dual-coding theory.

Question 32

What is propositional theory? Does the Kosslyn et al. 1978 study support it?

Answer 32

-All knowledge can be expressed semantically - Kosslyn et al. showed that when asked questions about distances on two locations on a map, the answer correlated to the length of the distance between the two points.

Question 33

What is propositional theory?

Answer 33

Every concept can be represented semantically

Question 34

What did Paivio's 1971 test do?

Answer 34

paivio's test: imagery potential of word pairs given to subject is a better predictor of learning than high-association value

Question 35

What did the Shepard and Metzler 1971 experiment show?

Answer 35

It showed that the rotation degrees that a subject would make in their head in order to answer a 3D rotation problem correlates linearly to time it took to answer

Question 36

What is hemispatial neglect? what does it cause?

Answer 36

Damage in the posterior right parietal lobe causes left visual feild deficiet. This causes people to loose the ability to interact with information in their left visual feild

Question 37

What is the hierarchical network model of semantic organization and who what is proposed by?

Answer 37

- Rosch et al. 1976 created a three tiered hierarchical system to memory - superordinate: an overarching category who have few attributes in common - base-level: intermediate category, characterized by being the most differentiated level - subordinate: the smallest catagories, with many attributes per a category *Supported by Bower et al. 1970 which showed that info presented hierarchically become

Question 38

What is the feature comparison model of semantic organization and who was it proposed by and what are the two stages?

Answer 38

- The feature comparison model compares the features of the new item to features common in each category to figure out where it goes. -problem: not great with goal-derived catagories, only taxonomical. -Proposed by Smith et al. 1974 - stage one: compare all features of two concepts and determine similarity -stage two: examine defining features if nessisary

Question 39

What is the spreading activation model of semantic organization and who was it proposed by?

Answer 39

-Concepts are linked together via relationships (Part of, types of, characteristics of, and leads to) -spreading activation: when one concept is activated it spreads to related concepts and attributes - proposed by Collins and Loftus, 1975 - can explain semantic priming

Question 40

What is Barletts schema theory?

Answer 40

-The mind uses schemas to organize new and old experiences into abstract cognitive structures -schemas: a general knowledge structure that provides a framework for knowledge acquisition

Question 41

What two things did Farah, 1988 show?

Answer 41

1) visual imagery uses the same brain as vision 2) selective damage to brain impairs visual imagery similar to vision

Question 42

What is the difference between rule learning and attribute learning? What type of tasks are they?

Answer 42

- types of concept identification tasks - Rule learning: ppl are told attributes and asked to figure out the rule - attribute learning: ppl are told a logical rule but have to discover relevant attributes

Question 43

What is a logical rule? What are the two types known for class?

Answer 43

- logical rule: a rule based on logical relations - conjunctive: two or more attributes are all requried for rule - disjunctive: two or more attributes are required, but not all nessisary

Question 44

What is the difference between a rule and an exemplar? When are they used?

Answer 44

A rule is a set proceedure followed when a problem happens that guarantees the correct result. An exemplar is a strategy that is followed that can help arrive at the correct result. Rules: used during initial learning (eg prototype model) exemplar: used when experienced

Question 45

What is the prototype and feature-frequency rule? Are they rules or exemplars

Answer 45

These are rules: they use a specfic set of instructions to abstract information about the object - Prototype: new item is categorized under the category it fits the prototype of -feature frequency: new item is categorized by adding up all the features shared between it and the category

Question 46

What is the average-distance rule and the nearest-neighbor rule? Are they exemplars or rules?

Answer 46

These are exemplars: they use an average or approximation to determine best fit - average distance: ppl compare patterns to the category's examples - nearest-neighbor: selects the category with the closest example to the new item

Question 47

What is the typicality effect? What is the category size effect?

Answer 47

-Typicality effect: the effect that arises when some examples in a category are considered better and more typical than others -Catagory size effect: Smaller categories tend to have greater similarity -> classified faster

Question 48

What did Collins and Quillian 1970 test show?

Answer 48

-Higher jumps in semantic hierarchy take longer to answer facilitation: infomraiton can be accessed easier because of previous question

Question 49

What are scripts about?

Answer 49

Scripts are knowledge of routine activities, such as standard roles, props, or conditions

Question 50

What is modal and amodal experiences?

Answer 50

-amodal: knowledge that is abstracted from sensory experiences - modal: knowledge that is represented from sensory experiences

Question 51

What is the perceptual symbols model?

Answer 51

Knowledge is retrieved by from the LTM by reenacting perceptual experiences

Question 52

What is the difference between characteristic and defining features?

Answer 52

defining: necessary for membership in the category characteristic: usually present in a category member

Question 53

What is the difference between syntax, semantic and grammar?

Answer 53

- Semantics = meaning + grammar -Syntax: how words are organized in a sentence -grammar: the rules that symbols follow in a language

Question 54

What is the difference between Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia?

Answer 54

-Aphaisa: the inability to use language in some respect -Broca's: inability to use grammar due to damage in the frontal lobe -Wernicke's: inability to have meaning in their sentences due to damage in their temporal lobe

Question 55

What does Kuhl 1993 prototype study show?

Answer 55

-As phonemic prototypes form, discriminating the variance around them becomes harder. Prototype is considered a 'perceptual magnet'

Question 56

What is phrase-structure grammar?

Answer 56

dividing sentences into their grammatical units to derive hierarchial relationships

Question 57

What is transformational grammar?

Answer 57

Catagorizing sentences by their ability to transform into other related sentences via rules

Question 58

What are the four stages of Carpenter and Daneman's semantic context comprehension model

Answer 58

- fixate and encode next word (pattern recognition) - retrieve concept activated by fixated word + prior context - integrate retrieved concept with prior context - successful integration or error heuristics

Question 59

What does Swinney and Hakes' 1976 study show?

Answer 59

found that subjects took longer to identify phonemes when it followed an ambiguous word. Effect was eliminated when context clarified the meaning

Question 60

What two things do skilled readers do?

Answer 60

-better able to suppress inappropriate meanings - higher working memory capacity - better error recovery heuristics

Question 61

What is the difference between surface and deep language structure?

Answer 61

Surface= sentence structure deep = underlying meaning

Question 62

What is the word superiority effect and the sentence superiority effect?

Answer 62

Word superiority effect: letters in words are easier to identify than nonwords - sentence superiority effect: words are easier to identify in sentences than by themselves

Question 63

What is a lexical decision task?

Answer 63

Its asking if a word is actually a word that belongs in a sentences

Question 64

What are Greeno's three classification of problems?

Answer 64

- arrangement problems: parts need to be rearranged in order to satisfy it - inducing structure: series completion problems that ask subject to complete a rule based pattern - transformation: start and end state is known, but inbetween steps must be solved

Question 65

What skills are needed for solving arrangement problems (3)?

Answer 65

- fluency in generating and sifting through possibilities - retrieval of solution patterns - prior info of the search

Question 66

What skills are needed to solve a inducing structure problem (2)?

Answer 66

- identifying relations amoungst components - working memory: for comparison

Question 67

What is means-end analysis?

Answer 67

It is comparing the starting and final state of a transformation model and eliminating the differences via steps

Question 68

What is the difference between a search space and a problem space?

Answer 68

Problem space: a set of choices evaluated at each step in problem solving determined by the solver search space: a set of choices at each step as determined by the problem

Question 69

What is heuristics?

Answer 69

strategies that can help solve a problem, but do not guarantee the solution

Question 70

What are subgoals, analogies, means-ends, and diagrams?

Answer 70

heuristics

Question 71

What is an algorithm?

Answer 71

A set of rules that will solve the problem

Question 72

What is representational transfer?

Answer 72

The use of the same format for two problems. Includes analogical transfer and is very hard to do when not told to. Dependent on representing the solution on an abstract level.

Question 73

What is needed in order to do well on a transformation task?

Answer 73

- Capacity, ability to encode and retrieve - search space navigation

Question 74

What is a compensatory and noncompensatory model? When is which one used and which test showed this?

Answer 74

-Compensatory: subject adds up all the characteristics of an option and compares it to others -noncompensatory: subject looks at a few attributes that must be in an option -Payne, 1976: when subjects are given a large task with lots of variables, they use a noncompensatory model. Visa versa for small capacity tests

Question 75

What are additive models and additive-difference models in decision making?

Answer 75

Compensatory models - additive: adds attribute values to each option - additive-difference: compares options by adding their attribute values

Question 76

What are elimination-by-aspect and conjunctive models of decision making?

Answer 76

- noncompensatory models elimination-by-aspect: evaluate options and reject those who do not meet minimum requirement - conjunctive: reject option if the value of an attribute fails to meet a minimum

Question 77

What is the Dual process theories of judgement? Who suggested it?

Answer 77

- Two systems during problem solving. System one is quick an uses associates to derive approximate answers. System two is slow and rule-based used to derive the precise answer. - if system one cannot solve the problem, then it is overriden by system two - Kaheman and Frederick, 2005

Question 78

How do you calculate expected value, expected utility, and subjective expected utility?

Answer 78

-Expected value= probability of occurance * value - expected utility = utility of the option * probability - subjective expected utility= subjectivity probability * utility

Question 79

What is a decision frame?

Answer 79

A decision frame is when the same problem can be shown in different formulations due to preferences, such as how the problem was portrayed

Question 80

What is loss aversion?

Answer 80

Loss aversion is the characteristic that we are more senitive to losses than gains. This is shown in Weber 1998 experiment, when he found that even if the expected value was the same, if one had a higher stakes of loss then it was avoided.

Question 81

What is a recognition-primed decision?

Answer 81

An informed decision made quickly in recognition of a situation. Needs practice, but is considered an automatic response

Question 82

What is Bayes theorem?

Answer 82

A normative proceedure that combines prior probability with new evidence to get a new probability

Question 83

What does Hegarty 1992 show?

Answer 83

- Hegarty did the pully system. He showed participants a series of questions about pullies, and then had them answer true-or-false about it. Found that bigger pully systems had faster time delays only on kinematic questions