Final Flashcards
1
Q
A type of learning in which the future frequency of a behaviour is
affected by its consequences
A
Operant conditioning
2
Q
Behaviours that are motivated by their consequences
A
Operant behaviours
3
Q
In classical conditioning, responses are elicited by —. In operant conditioning, responses are maintained by —
A
Antecedent stimuli, consequences
4
Q
Who was the first to study operant conditioning?
A
Edward Thorndike
5
Q
Explain Thorndike’s law of effect
A
Behaviours change as a result of consequences: A response followed by a pleasant consequence (satisfier) will tend to be repeated, a response followed by an unpleasant consequence (annoyer) will tend to decrease in frequency
6
Q
Controlled by antecedent stimuli
A
Respondent behaviour
7
Q
Controlled and selected by consequences after the behavior
A
Operant behaviour
8
Q
A response that produces a consequence
A
Operant response (R)
9
Q
A consequence that serves to increase or decrease the frequency of the response
A
Operant consequence (S^R/P)
10
Q
Consequences that strengthen behaviours
A
Reinforcers
11
Q
Consequences that weaken behaviours
A
Punishers
12
Q
In the context of operant conditioning, what does strength refer to?
A
The probability/frequency of responses
13
Q
The process by which a consequence strengthens a behaviour
A
Reinforcement
14
Q
The process by which a consequence weakens a behaviour
A
Punishment
15
Q
Stimulus in the presence of which responses are reinforced and in the absence of which responses are not reinforced
A
Discriminative stimulus/operant antecedent (S^D)
16
Q
What is the three-term contingency?
A
Antecedent event (S^D): Behaviour (R) -> Consequence (S^R/P)
17
Q
Weakening of a behaviour through non-reinforcement of a previously reinforced behaviour
A
Extinction
17
Q
Name a pro and a con for extinction
A
Gentler than punishment, slower to condition
18
Q
Name and describe the four types of contingencies
A
Positive reinforcement (S^R+): The presentation of an appetitive stimulus following a response (increase in strength)
Negative reinforcement (S^R-): The removal of an aversive stimulus following a response (increase in strength)
Positive punishment (S^P+): The presentation of an aversive stimulus (decrease in strength)
Negative punishment (S^P-): The removal of an appetitive stimulus following a response (decrease in strength)
18
Q
Stimulus that signals the absence of reinforcement
A
Discriminative stimulus for extinction (S^Δ)
19
Q
Reinforcement inherent to performing the behaviour
A
Intrinsic reinforcement
20
Q
Reinforcement by a consequence that is external to the behaviour
A
Extrinsic reinforcement
21
Q
Gradual creation of new behavior through reinforcement of successive approximations to that behaviour
A
Shaping
22
Q
The response required to obtain reinforcement
A
Schedules of reinforcement
23
Stable response patterns that emerge after considerable
exposure to a schedule
Steady-state behaviours
24
Each specified response is reinforced
Continuous reinforcement schedule (CRF)
25
What are continuous reinforcement schedules best for?
Strengthening a newly learned behavior
26
Only some responses are reinforced
Intermittent schedule
27
Name the four main types of intermittent schedules
Fixed ratio
Variable ratio
Fixed interval
Variable interval
28
Reinforcement is contingent on a fixed, predictable number of responses
Fixed ratio (FR)
29
Describe the typical rate of response for a fixed rate schedule
Generally produces high rate of response with a “post-reinforcement pause” after each reinforcer
30
Schedule has a very low response requirement
Rich/dense schedule
31
Very high response requirement
Lean schedule
32
Increasing the response requirement from a very rich schedule to a very lean schedule
Stretching the ratio
33
Breakdowns in behavior due to increasing response requirement too quickly or too high
Ratio strain
34
Reinforcement is contingent upon varying, unpredictable number of responses
Variable ratio (VR)
35
Reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a fixed, predictable time period
Fixed interval (FI)
36
Reinforcement contingent upon the first response after a varying, unpredictable time period
Variable interval (VI)
37
Reinforcement is contingent on performing the behaviour continuously
Duration schedule
38
Behavior must be performed continuously for a fixed, predictable period of time
Fixed duration (FD)
39
Behavior must be performed continuously for a varying, unpredictable period of time
Variable duration (VD)
40
Reinforcement is directly contingent on the rate of response
Response-rate schedules
41
Reinforcement contingent upon emitting at least a certain number of responses in a certain period of time
Differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH)
42
Minimum amount of time must pass between each response before the reinforcer is delivered
Differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL)
43
Reinforcement contingent upon emitting a series of responses at a steady rate
Differential reinforcement of paced responding
44
Reinforcer delivered independently of a response
Noncontingent schedules (response independent schedules)
45
Reinforcer is delivered after fixed, predictable period of time, regardless of one’s behavior.
Fixed time (FT) schedule
46
Reinforcer is delivered following varying, unpredictable period of time, regardless of one’s behavior.
Variable time (VT) schedule
47
Combination of two or more simple schedules
Complex schedules
48
Requirements of 2+ simple schedules must be met before a reinforcer is delivered
Conjunctive schedule
49
Response requirement changes as a function of performance while responding for previous reinforcer
Adjusting schedule
50
Sequence of 2+ simple schedules, each of which has its own S^D
and ending with a final reinforcer
Chained schedule
51
Increase in strength and/or efficiency of responding as one draws near goal
Goal-gradient effect
52
Responding on a chained schedule established by training the final link first and the initial link last (in animals)
Backward chaining
53
How are response chains usually established in humans?
Instructions
54
Explain drive reduction theory
All reinforcers are associated (directly or indirectly) with some type of drive reduction
An event is reinforcing to the extent that it is associated with a reduction in some type of physiological drive
55
Describe the criticisms of drive reduction theory
Not all reinforcers are associated with drive reduction
Incentive motivation: Derived from some property of the reinforcer as opposed to an internal drive state
56
Explain the Premack principle
High-probability behavior (HPB) can be used to reinforce low-probability behavior (LPB)
Reinforcement consists of a sequence of 2 behaviours: The behaviour that is being reinforced, and the behaviour that is the reinforcer (reinforcers are viewed as behaviors rather than stimuli)
57
Explain the response deprivation hypothesis
A behaviour can serve as a reinforcer when access to that behaviour is restricted or its frequency falls (or is in danger of falling) below its preferred level of occurrence
58
Baseline level of occurrence when an organism can freely engage in the activity
Preferred level of occurence
59
Explain the behavioural bliss approach
An organism with free access to alternative activities will distribute its behaviour in such a way as to maximize overall reinforcement
60
Optimal distribution of activities
Behavioural bliss point
61
A decrease in the strength response due to nonreinforcement of a previously reinforced response
Extinction
62
List the three common side effects of extinction
Extinction burst
Increase in variability
Emotional behaviour (extinction-induced aggression, depressive symptoms)
63
Temporary increase in frequency and intensity of responding when extinction is first implemented
Extinction burst
64
Reappearance during extinction of other behaviors that had once been effective in obtaining reinforcement
Resurgence
65
Why is consistency important for extinction?
Behaviours can be strengthened if reinforcement is suddenly given during extinction
66
Extent to which responding persists after an extinction procedure has been implemented
Resistance to extinction
67
List the four factors affecting resistance to extinction
Schedule of reinforcement
Degree of deprivation
Previous experience with extinction
Discriminative stimulus
68
Describe the partial reinforcement effect
Behavior maintained on intermittent (partial) reinforcement schedule will extinguish more slowly than behavior maintained on continuous schedule
69
How does history of reinforcement impact extinction?
More reinforcers received = greater resistance to extinction
70
How does the magnitude of the reinforcer impact extinction?
Large reinforcers often result in greater resistance to extinction
71
How does the degree of deprivation impact extinction?
The greater the level of deprivation for the reinforcer, the greater the resistance to extinction
72
How does previous experience impact extinction?
The greater the number of previous exposures to extinction, the quicker extinction will occur
73
How does the discriminative stimulus impact extinction?
Extinction occurs more quickly when there is a distinctive stimulus that signals the onset of extinction
74
The reappearance of an extinguished response, despite the continued absence of reinforcement following a rest period of extinction
Spontaneous recovery
75
Reinforcement of any behavior other than the target behavior that is being extinguished.
Differential reinforcement of other behaviour (DRO)
76
Concerning differential reinforcement of other behaviour (DRO), what is the target behaviour weakened by?
Both the non-reinforcement of unwanted behaviour and the reinforcement of the alternative behaviour
77
A stimulus in the presence of which responses are reinforced and in the absence of which responses are not reinforced
Discriminative stimulus
78
When the presence of discriminative stimulus reliably affects probability of a behavior
Stimulus control
79
Tendency for an operant response to be emitted in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to an SD
Stimulus generalization
80
With stimulus generalization, the more similar the stimulus...
The stronger the response
81
Describes the strength of responding in the presence of stimuli that are similar to the SD and that vary along a continuum
Generalization gradient
82
Tendency for an operant response to be emitted more in the presence of one stimulus than another
Stimulus discrimination
83
Describe the relationship between stimulus generalization and discrimination
Less generalization = strong discrimination
More generalization = weak discrimination
84
Reinforcement of responding in the presence of SD and not in the presence of another stimulus
Discrimination training
85
Describe the peak shift effect
Following discrimination training, the peak of the generalization will often shift from the SD to a stimulus further removed from the discriminative stimulus for extinction (S∆)
86
What are the two possible explanations for the peak shift effect?
Some generalization occurs: Responding occurs to relative rather than absolute values of the stimuli
SD has acquired some negative properties due to its similarity to the S∆
87
Two or more independent schedule presented in sequence, each resulting in reinforcement having distinctive SD
Multiple schedule
88
With multiple schedules, what indicates stimulus control?
Stimulus control happens when the subject responds differently in the presence of different SDs associated with each schedule
89
When a change in rate of reinforcement on one component of multiple schedule produces an opposite change in the rate of response on another component
Behavioural contrast
90
A decrease in reinforcement of one component produces an increase in response of another component
Positive contrast effect
91
An increase in reinforcement of one component produces a decrease in response of another component
Negative contrast effect
92
When the rate of response varies inversely with an upcoming change in the rate of reinforcement.
Anticipatory contrast
93
A form of gradual discrimination training that minimizes errors and side effects
Errorless discrimination training
94
What are the two aspects of errorless discrimination training?
Fading: S∆ is introduced soon after the animal begins to respond appropriately to the SD
S∆ presented in weak form to begin with and then gradually strengthened
95
Describe an advantage and disadvantage of errorless discrimination training
Advantage: minimizes errors and reduces adverse effects of discrimination training such as frustration
Disadvantage: can result in learning that is more rigid and difficult to change in comparison to regular discrimination training
96
What are the two types of behaviour associated with negative reinforcement?
Escape behaviour
Avoidance
97
Performance of a behaviour terminates an aversive stimulus
Escape behaviour
98
Performance of a behaviour prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring
Avoidance
99
Describe the two-process theory of avoidance
A fear response is classically conditioned
Once the fear response is conditioned, moving away from the CS is negatively reinforced through a reduction in fear through operant conditioning
100
What are the main criticisms of the two-process theory of avoidance?
Some avoidance responses are extremely persistent and do not extinguish
Once a subject gets used to the procedure, they don’t necessarily show fear but avoidance continues anyway
If there is no longer any fear in the CS, how can the CS be negatively reinforced by a reduction in fear?
101
Describe the anxiety conservation hypothesis
Responses occur so quickly that there is insufficient CS exposure to the feared stimulus for extinction to occur
102
Describe the one-process theory of avoidance
The act of avoidance is negatively reinforced by a lower rate of aversive stimulation
103
Describe the differences between avoidance in animals and phobias in humans
Avoidance usually requires a few conditioning trials, phobic conditioning in humans requires only a single trial
Avoidance may eventually extinguish, but phobic conditioning in humans is extremely resistant to extinction
104
Avoidance conditioning procedure for animals that more closely matches human phobic conditioning
Stampfl Procedure
105
A disorder in which people have recurring, unwanted thoughts, ideas or sensations and to get rid of the thoughts, they feel driven to do something repetitively
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
106
What is the two-process theory explanation for OCD?
Obsession has been classically conditioned to elicit anxiety
Compulsive behavior is negatively reinforced by reduction of anxiety
107
Treatment for OCD featuring graduated prolonged exposure to events that elicit the obsessive anxiety while not engaging in the compulsive behavior.
Exposure and response prevention (ERP) therapy
108
What are two types of negative punishment?
Time out: Loss of access to any positive reinforcer for a period of time
Response cost: Removal of specific positive reinforcer
109
Punishment that is an inherent aspect of the behavior being punished
Intrinsic punishment
110
Punishment that is not an inherent aspect of behavior being punished
Extrinsic punishment
111
Event that is innately punishing
Primary (unconditioned) punisher
112
Event that is punishing because of past association with other punishers
Secondary (conditioned) punisher
113
Event that is punishing because of its past association with many other punishers
Generalized (generalized secondary) punisher
114
Describe eight problems with punishment
Doesn’t directly strengthen occurrence of adaptive behavior
Punishing one behavior can result in generalized suppression of other behaviors.
The person delivering the punishment could become an SD for punishment
Punishment may simply teach individual to avoid the person who delivered the punishment
Likely to elicit strong emotional response (can interfere with adaptive behavior you would prefer to see).
Can sometimes elicit aggressive reaction, which may include bystanders.
Punishment through modelling could teach the person that punishment is acceptable means of controlling behavior.
Often has an immediate effect stopping unwanted behavior; use of punishment is therefore strongly reinforced and can be taken advantage of
115
Describe four possible benefits of punishment
Quickly stops a behavior
Can sometimes lead to…
- An increase in social behavior
- Improvement in mood
- Increased attention to the environment
116
Describe six recommendations for the effective use of punishment
It should be immediate
It should be consistent.
It should be intense enough to stop the behavior (but not so intensive as to be abusive).
Negative punishment (e.g., time-out) is generally preferable to positive punishment.
If possible, it should be accompanied by an explanation.
It should be combined with positive reinforcement for appropriate behavior
117
Describe conditioned suppression theory
Punishment does not weaken behavior, it produces an emotional response that interferes with the behaviour's occurrence
118
Describe the avoidance theory of punishment
Punishment is a type of avoidance conditioning where the avoidance response is any behavior other than behavior being punished
119
Describe the Premack principle of punishment
Low-probability behavior (LPB) can be used to punish high-probability behavior (HPB)
120
When the aversive event was essentially uncontrollable (even unpredictable), such that whatever you do, you are unable to influence your exposure to that event
Noncontingent punishment
121
Decrease in learning ability resulting from repeated exposure to uncontrollable aversive events
Learned helplessness
122
Experimentally produced disorder in which exposure to unpredictable aversive events leads to neurotic-like symptoms
Masserman’s Experimental Neurosis
123
Describe the relationship between Masserman’s Experimental Neurosis and PTSD
Suggests that people are more likely to develop PTSD when exposed to highly aversive events in settings that they normally regard as safe
124
Simultaneous presentation of two or more independent schedules, each leading to a reinforce, where the subject is given a choice between responding for a reinforcer on one schedule vs another
Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement
125
Describe the matching law
On concurrent VI schedules, the proportion (or percentage) of responses emitted on a schedule will approximately match the proportion of reinforcers earned on that schedule
126
What is the matching law equation?
RA/(RA+RB) = S^RA/(S^RA+S^RB)
Number of responses emitted on schedule A divided by the number of responses emitted on schedule A plus the number of responses emitted on schedule B equals the number of reinforcers earned on schedule A divided by the number of reinforcers earned on schedule A plus the number of reinforcers earned on schedule B
127
Name the three types of deviations from the matching law
Undermatching
Overmatching
Bias
128
Proportion of responding on the richer versus poorer schedule is less different than would be predicted by matching
Undermatching
129
Proportion of responding on the richer versus poorer schedule is more different than would be predicted by matching
Overmatching
130
One alternative receives a higher proportion of responding than would be predicted by matching regardless of the number of reinforcers received
Bias
131
Describe maximization (optimization) theory of matching
Matching will somehow maximize overall reinforcement
132
Describe the melioration theory of matching
We tend to shift behavior toward a higher value choice regardless of the long-term effect on the overall amount of reinforcement
133
Describe the three factors contributing to melioration sometimes reducing overall reinforcement
We might spend more time on a highly reinforcing alternative than is needed to obtain the reinforcer
Overindulgence in a highly reinforcing alternative can result in long-term habituation, thereby reducing its value as reinforcer
Our behavior is more strongly influenced by immediate rather than delayed reinforcers
134
Entails the strengthening of a desired action and the capacity to suppress an undesired impulse
Self-control
135
Ability to delay gratification, resisting short-term temptations in order to meet long-term goals
Willpower
136
Which three brain regions are associated with self-control?
Anterior cingulate
Prefrontal cortex
Orbitofrontal cortex
137
Name seven factors affecting self-control
Ability to delay instant gratification, regulate emotions and control impulses
Age
Family and Culture
Exposure to alcohol & drugs in the child’s environment
Temperament
Genetics
Mental health conditions, illnesses, disorders
138
High levels of self-control are associated with improvements in which four areas?
Cognitive and self-regulatory skills in adolescence
Health and well-being
Academic performance
Interpersonal relationships
139
Low levels of self-control are associated with which three issues?
Buying and financial problems
Eating disorders
Procrastination
140
What was Skinner's position on self-control?
Self-control is not an issue of willpower but instead an issue of being confronted with choices that have conflicting outcomes
141
Which two responses did Skinner suggest were involved in self-control?
(1) a controlling response that (2) alters frequency of a controlled response
142
Describe the four types of controlling responses according to Skinner
Physical restraint: Physically manipulate something in the environment
Depriving or satiating: Use motivating operations of deprivation or satiation
Doing something else: Perform and alternate behavior
Self-reinforcement and Self-punishment
143
True or False: Self-punishment and self-reinforcement function differently than punishment and reinforcement
True
144
Describe self-control as a temporal issue
Self-control can be viewed as the act of choosing a larger later reward (LLR) over a smaller sooner reward (SSR) - delayed gratification
145
The act of choosing an SSR over an LLR
Impulsiveness
146
Describe the Ainsle-Rachlin model of self-control
Preference between SSRs and LLRs can shift over time
The value of a reward is often a hyperbolic function of its delay
As delay to a reward decreases, reward value increases slowly at first and then more and more sharply as the reward becomes imminent.
147
Describe the major problem with self-control and two possible solutions according to the Ainsle-Rachlin model
The major problem in self-control is we often experience a reversal of preference from the LLR to the SSR when the SSR becomes imminent
Solution: Raise value of the LLR so that it outweighs the SSR or reduce the value of the SSR
148
Describe the small-but-cumulative effects model of self-control
Each individual choice on a self-control task has a small but cumulative effect on one’s likelihood of obtaining desired long-term goal
149
Describe two ways to counter the small-but-cumulative effects tendency
Make salient that individual choices are not isolated events, but rather parts of a whole (if you use the “just this once” excuse today, you are likely to also use it tomorrow)
Establish rules that clearly distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behaviors
150
Describe three ways to improve self-control
Setting specific and realistic goals
Develop a plan for achieving your goal
Monitor progress
151
Behavior of a model is witnessed by observer and observer’s
behavior is subsequently changed
Observational/Social Learning
152
Strongly emphasizes the importance of observational learning and cognitive variables in explaining human behaviour
Social learning theory (Bandura)
153
Mental process occurring between observing a behaviour and imitating it (stimulus/response)
Mediation
154
Name and describe the four mediational processes of observational learning
Attention: Pay attention to others in order to learn through observation
Retention: Process information/consolidate information
Production: Translate learned behaviour in to action
Motivation: Learners are selective in the behaviours they exhibit
155
Neurons that fire with the same response pattern when we perform an action as when we witness that same action being performed in another person
Mirror neurons
156
Typically instinctive/reflexive behaviour that is triggered by observing behaviour in others
Contagious behaviour
157
Probability of behavior is changed because an individual’s attention is drawn to a particular item or location by behavior of another individual
Stimulus enhancement
158
Classically conditioned emotional responses that result from seeing emotional responses exhibited by others
Vicarious emotional responses
159
A form of observational learning that involves close duplication of a novel behaviour
True imitation
160
Tendency to imitate new modeled behaviour with no specific reinforcement for doing so
Generalized imitation
161
Relate observational learning to operant conditioning
Observing a person behaving in a way that leads to reinforcers may influence the likelihood of our engaging in the same behavior
162
Requires that observer pay attention in order to model the behavior in order to acquire the basic information needed to perform that behaviour
Acquisition
163
Which four factors does acquisition depend on?
Whether model receives reinforcement for the behavior
Whether observer receives reinforcement for paying attention to the model
Whether observer has sufficient skills to benefit from the modeling
Personal characteristics of model
164
How you translate acquired knowledge into actual behaviour
Performance
165
Describe the three ways that reinforcement/punishment can impact performance
We are more/less likely to perform modeled behavior when we have observed the behavior being reinforced/punished (vicarious reinforcement/punishment)
We are more/less likely to perform modeled behavior when we ourselves experience reinforcement/punishment for performing behavior
Our personal history of reinforcement/punishment
166
What did Bandura's Bobo doll study demonstrate about the social learning of aggression?
Demonstrated that children have a strong tendency to imitate aggressive behavior
The behaviours performed precisely replicated the ones the behaviours they observed (true imitation)
The effect was stronger when the behaviour was observed being reinforced, and less strong when the behaviour was observed being punished
167
Describe gender differences in the social learning of aggression through violent media
Studies have shown that men and boys are more likely to express aggression after exposure to media violence
Violent media may make women and girls more vulnerable to being victims of aggression
168
Verbal description of a contingency
Rule
169
Behavior that is generated or governed by exposure to rules (through language)
Rule-governed behaviour
170
Describe two disadvantages of using rules to govern behaviour
Less efficient than behavior that has been directly shaped by natural contingencies/experiences
Sometimes insensitive to actual contingencies of reinforcement in a particular setting (Focusing only on the rule may prevent you from changing behaviour to maximize reinforcement)
171
A verbal description of a contingency that we present to ourselves to influence our behavior
Personal rule
172
How closely what we say we are going to do matches what we actually do at a later time
Say-Do Correspondence
173
Personal rules that indicate the specific process by which a task is to be accomplished
Personal process rules/implementation intentions
174
Mechanism through which organisms that are capable of adapting to environmental pressures are more likely to reproduce and pass along their adaptive characteristics than those that cannot adapt
Natural selection
175
Helpful genetic trait that evolves as a result of natural selection
Evolutionary adaptation
176
Innate tendency to more easily learn certain types of behaviors or to associate certain types of events with each other
Preparedness
177
What are the two main examples of preparedness in classical conditioning?
Fear conditioning, taste aversion
178
A form of conditioning in which a food item that has been paired with gastrointestinal illness becomes a conditioned aversive stimulus
Taste aversion
179
Name and explain the four processes associated with taste aversion conditioning
Stimulus generalization: Avoiding food that tastes similar to the aversive food
Blocking: Presence of aversive stimulus can block taste aversions to other food
Overshadowing: Can occur when we develop an aversion to a stronger tasting food over a milder one
Latent inhibition: More likely to form aversion to a novel food than a familiar one
180
What are the three main ways taste aversion conditioning differs from other forms of classical conditioning?
Formation of associations over long delays
One-trial conditioning
Specificity of association (Strong tendency to associate gastrointestinal illness with food or drink rather than other stimuli in the environment)
181
How does preparedness relate to operant conditioning?
Some stimuli are better at reinforcing behaviours related to preparedness
182
Innate (biological) reactions to fearful stimuli
Species-Specific Defence Reaction (SSDR)
183
Name the three types of SSDRs
Fight, flight, freeze
184
Which two parts of the limbic system are associated with the flight-fight-freeze system?
Amygdala: Fear responding/encoding
Hypothalamus: regulates automatic nervous system
185
Primary system involved in flight-fight-freeze system
Automatic nervous system
186
Conditioning in which an innate fixed action pattern gradually emerges and displaces a behavior being operantly conditioned
Instinctive drift
187
Tendency to approach a stimulus that signals the presentation of an appetitive event
Sign tracking
188
Excessive pattern of behaviour that emerges as a by-product of certain types of intermittent schedules of reinforcement for some other behaviour
Adjunctive behaviour (schedule-induced behaviour)
189
Describe four characteristics of adjunctive behaviour
Typically occurs on FI or FT schedules of reinforcement, immediately following consumption of the intermittent reinforcer, during which time another reinforcer is not available
Affected by level of deprivation for the scheduled reinforcer
Opportunity to engage in an adjunctive behavior can serve as a reinforcer for another behavior
There is an optimal time interval between reinforcers for development of adjunctive behavior
190
An activity that emerges when one is confronted by conflict or prevented from obtaining a goal
Displacement activity
191
Occurs in rats when they exhibit an abnormally high level of activity and low level of food intake generated by exposure to a time-restricted schedule of feeding
Activity anorexia
192
Psychiatric disorder where patients refuse to eat adequate amounts of food and lose extreme amounts of weight
Anorexia nervosa
193
An animal’s behavior is organized into certain innate systems (such as feeding, mating, avoiding predators), with each system becoming activated in relevant situations
Behaviour systems theory
194
Humans have an inherited predisposition to be drawn to
nature, including other animals
Biophilia hypothesis
195
Attributing human characteristics to animals
Anthropomorphism
196
The study of information processing across a variety of species
Comparative cognition
197
What are Tinbergen's four questions?
Ultimate Cause:
-How does the trait help the individual survive or reproduce?
-Is the trait found in closely related species, or species with similar environments?
Proximate Cause:
-What are the biological or environmental mechanisms that cause the trait to emerge?
-How does the trait develop across the life span of the individual?
198
Forgetting when you have been "told" to forget something
Directed forgetting
199
When you see this card, review the delayed matching-to-sample task and directed forgetting pigeon experiment diagrams
N/A
200
What seems to be the relationship between food-storing in birds and memory?
Food-storing species tend to have better spatial memory than species that do not store food
Spatial memory highly correlated with size of hippocampus, and food-storing species have larger hippocampuses
201
Understanding of quantity
Numerosity
202
Studies the cognitive, developmental and neural bases of numbers and mathematics
Numerical cognition
203
True or False: Animals are not capable of categorization
False: Some animals (such as pigeons) do seem capable of simple categorization
204
True or False: Some animals display counting abilities
True: Parrots differentiating between numerical values, primates distinguish among small numbers
205
Relationship between two objects can be inferred by knowing relationship of each to a third object
Transitive inference
206
True or False: Humans are the only species known to use tools
False
207
Tool use provides evidence that...
An animal has higher cognitive abilities
208
Animals can learn to use tools through...
Observation, social interaction, and practice
209
Tendency to attribute mental states to others, seeing oneself as separate from others, and recognizing that the content of another’s mind is different from one’s own
Theory of mind
210
The ability to perceive oneself as separate from others
Self-awareness
211
Name and describe the classic test of self-awareness
Mark and mirror task: If an organism behaves differently when faced with their reflection than they would otherwise, it is an indication of self-awareness
212
How are cooperation and deception related to theory of mind?
Cooperation and deception require an ability to infer what another individual knows
213
Why is cooperation rare?
Competition in one setting tends to impede cooperation in other settings
214
Process of sending and receiving signals
Communication
215
What are the four main modes of animal communication?
Visual, auditory, tactile, chemical
216
Name and describe the three characteristics that separate language from other forms of communication
Symbol: A cue that represents an experience/object that can be shared
Syntax: Grammatical rules concerning how symbols are arranged
Semantics: The meaning associated with symbols
217
True or False: Some animals use language
False: Some do have communication systems but none that have all the features of a language
