Final Flashcards
(373 cards)
1
Q
What is the hypothesis for the WLE?
A
The number of words remembered should be higher in the short word condition and should be lower in the long word condition
2
Q
What is the IVs and DV(s) for the WLE?
A
IVs: Length of words being presented (short/long)
DVs: The number of words recalled
3
Q
What type of Design was the WLE?
A
Within
4
Q
True Experiment?
A
No, because studies that involve IVs that are subject variables can not be true experiments
5
Q
What is the theory for the WLE?
A
Rehearsal Rate
6
Q
What are the 2 conditions that are required in order for the experiment to be true?
A
- ) all IVs must be directly MANIPULATED by the experimenter
- ) Sub. must be RANDOMLY ASSIGNED to the condition(s) each and every independent variable
7
Q
What type of test is used for the WLE?
A
t-test which is used to compare only 2 means
8
Q
What 2 types of t-test are there?
A
directional: one-tailed (ones means is higher than the other)
non-directional- two-tailed test
9
Q
ANOVA
A
Used to compare two or more means
10
Q
Correlational
A
Used to examine the relationship between two variables
11
Q
Aristotle’s Wax Tablet
A
Described memory as a wax tablet in which experience writes and leaves impressions
12
Q
Wax Tablet
A
used frequently to seal envelopes, wax over time degrades, impressions can rub off over time just like memory after time the impressions in memory fade
13
Q
Computer metaphor
A
describes memory as a metaphor that stores and retrieves information
14
Q
What are the two parts that the computer metaphor divides memory info. into?
A
Hardware and Software
15
Q
Hardware
A
Structures in the brain related to remembering and forgetting
16
Q
What is a part of the brains “hardware”?
A
Hippocampus
17
Q
The hippocampus is?
A
(core of the brain) it is the ability to form new memories
18
Q
What are 2 diseases related to the Hippocampus
A
Alzheimer’s and Korsakoff’s
19
Q
Software
A
Strategies used for processing memory
20
Q
What are 3 strategies that the brain uses under the computer metaphor
A
Rehearsal, Organization, Elaborations
21
Q
(Computer metaphor) Rehearsal
A
Refers to the repetition of info as you are repeating it
22
Q
(Computer metaphor) Organization
A
the ability to combine items on a list into meaningful units
23
Q
(Computer metaphor)n Elaborations
A
the ability to associate new information w/old information
24
Q
Fixed Capacity (car trunk) assumption
A
STM capacity has a fixed upper limit that can not be exceeded
25
Upper limit of STM is?
7/-2 (5 to 9 items)
26
Assumption of efficiency
STM capacity depends on the efficiency with which information is processed in STM
27
What is the typical measure of efficiency?
Rehearsal Rate
28
Rehearsal Rate is?
how quickly you can rehearse items
29
Case's Efficiency Model
Developmental model that attempts tp explain age capacities
30
The purpose of Case's Efficiency model?
attempts to explain the growth in STM capacity that is typically observed in childhood (6-18)
31
What are the the 2 components that Case's Efficiency divides the model into?
Storage Space (SS) and Operating Space (OS)
32
When referring to Case's efficiency model what is SS
Storage Space is The amount of capacity available for storing items in STM
33
When referring to Case's efficiency model what is OS
Operating Space is the amount of capacity needed to rehearse items in STM
34
What is the assumption under Case's efficiency model?
How SS and OS change in childhood. That is the amount of OS needed to rehearse decreases over the course of childhood and the amount of SS available to store items in STM increases during childhood
35
The result of the assumption relating to Case's efficiency model?
Better memory from early to late childhood (6-18)
36
Cow's Digestive System Assumption and Why
Information flows through memory just as food flows through a cow's digestive system
This is because like a cow's digestive system memory has different chambers as well (referring to the Modal Model: STM, SM, LTM)
37
External Validity
Measure the degree to which the results of the study can be GENERALIZED to people and new contexts
38
Internal Validity
Measures the degree to which the study is free of confounds that can influence its results
39
Confounds
Are extraneous variables that the experimenter is not interested in and that can effect the outcome of a study
40
How do you try to avoid confounds?
By random Assignment
41
Field Research
research conducted in a relatively uncontrollable environment
42
Lab Research
research conducted in a relatively controlled environment
43
External and Internal validity when referring to field and lab research
Field research is HIGH is EXTERNAL validity and LOW in INTERNAL validity
Lab research is HIGH in INTERNAL validity and LOW in EXTERNAL validity
44
Is lab research always low in external validity?
no, because initially lab research are taken to the field
45
The Eyeball Test
replicate in the field, show me in the field
46
Sensory Memory (SM)
refers to the component of memory that takes in sensory impressions from the environment
47
3 characteristic of SM (capacity, duration, and conscious analysis)
Capacity: is assumed to be larger compared to STM
Duration: is assumed to be shorter compared to STM (1 sec)
Conscious analysis? Not assumed to be possible in SM
48
Iconic Memory
refers to SM for visual information
49
Echoic Memory
refers to SM for auditory information
50
Immediate Memory
The component of memory that holds information that you are conscious of right now
51
3 Characteristics of Immediate memory (capacity, duration, and conscious analysis)
Capacity: compared to SM is relatively small
Duration: Compared to SM is relatively long
Subconscious Analysis? Yes, is assumed to be required
52
Short Term Memory
component in immediate memory that only allows information to be HELD in immediate memory
53
Working Memory
Is the component in immediate memory that allows information to be HELD, MANIPULATED, and TRANSFERRED
54
Generic Memory
(LTM) component of memory that holds all the information you have learned over the lifespan which can be conscious and unconscious
55
3 Characteristics of generic memory (capacity, duration, and conscious analysis)
Capacity: assumed to be unlimited and is not scientific because it can not be tested
Duration: assumed to be a lifetime and is not scientific because it can not be tested
Conscious analysis?Not to be possible unless transferred to immediate memory
56
Semantic Memory:
Generic memory for the meanings of definitions and meaning of words, concepts, and ideas
57
Episodic Memory:
(Autobiographical) Generic Memory for episodes and events in life that you can experience
58
Procedural Memory
refers to generic memory for how to do things and how to perform certain tasks
59
Declarative Memory
refers to generic memory for knowledge and information that can be verbalized (written/spoken)
60
(Plato's Concept of Forms) Forms:
refers to the essential knowledge of things in the world
61
(Plato's Concept of Forms) Assumption:
Everything that there is to know about the world is stored into memory at birth
62
(Plato's Concepts of Forms) Implications:
If everything that there is to know about the world is stored at birth than the knowledge is to be RETRIEVED later in life
63
(Aristotle's Principle's of Association) Association:
When two ideas become linked in memory so that they are remembered better later on
64
(Aristotle's Principle's of Association) Types of Association
Contiguity, Similarity, and Contrast
65
Contiguity:
occurs when two ideas occur close in time become associated in memory and are remembered together later on
(i.e. Contiguity + Pavlov's Dog)
66
Similarity
occurs when two ideas have similar meanings become associated in memory and are remembered together later on
(Recall Test)
67
Contrast
Occurs when two ideas with opposite meanings become associated in memory and are remembered together later on
(Free association Task)
68
Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Paradigm:
A method for studying forgetting and the rate of forgetting
69
Procedure (2 Phases)
Learning Phase and Relearning Phase
70
Ebb. Learning Phase:
: Ebb. pretended to learn list of nonsense syllables until he could remember them perfectly
71
3 points to Ebb. learning phase:
1. nonsense syllables: they can be sounded out but have no inherent meanings
2. Ebb. was both the subject and the experimenter
3. Ebb studied items perfectly without making any error
72
Ebb. Relearning Phase
attempted to relearn the original syllables after a short or long delay
Short: 1 min
Long: 1 wk
73
Results:
Forgetting Curve: describes the rate of forgetting following a short or long delay
74
What was the Measure that Ebb. used?
% Savings
75
% Savings:
the amount of time Ebb. saved relearning the nonsense syllables relative to the times spent initially learning the syllables
76
High % savings meant
| Low % savings meant
High %=less forgetting
| Low %=more forgetting
77
Ebb. Forgetting curve Findings:
1st: % savings is high when the delay was short (1min)
2nd: % savings dropped shortly within one hour after learning the syllables
3rd: % savings levels off and does not drop sharply and levels off bw 1 hour and a week
**Less forgetting when the delay was short (1 min) and decreased as the delay increased and then levels off there after
78
Ebbinghaus's Studies on Associative Learning:
Direct and Remote Associations
79
Ebb. Direct Associations:
any items consecutive on a list
80
Ebb. Remote Associations:
any items not consecutive on a list
81
Ebb. Assumptions of Associative Learning:
1. Items linked by DIRECT ASSOCIATION should be remembered WELL together because he assumed they should be strongly associated with each other
2. Items linked by REMOTE ASSOCIATION would be remembered POORLY with each other because he assumed they would be weakly associated with each other
82
Ebb. Procedure To test Associative Learning Hypothesis
Learning and Relearning Phase of direct association list, remote association list 1 (skipping every other item), remote association list 2 (skipping every two items
83
Findings of Ebb. Associative Learning Hypothesis
Found that the recall (DV) differed for the different types of lists
Direct Association lists: high levels of recall
Remote Association lists: low levels of recall
** Memory was GOOD when items were presented CLOSE together, in contrast he found that memory was POOR when the items had been presented FARTHER APART from each other
** There was a negative correlation between Recall(DV) and the time b/w item presentations (IV)
84
Do Ebb. results support Aristotle's Principle of Contiguity?
Yes
| Items that are presented close in time become associated in memory and are remembered well together later on
85
Serial Position Curve:
Curves when items at the beginning and end of a list are remembered better than items in the middle of the same list
86
What was used to test and verify the Serial Position Curve?
Serial Recall task
87
What is the serial recall task?
Subjects presented with a series (one by one) of items and have to remember them as best they can
88
The findings of these tests created two separate effects:
Primary Effect and Recency Effect
89
Primary effect
seems to occur because the items presented at the beginning of the
90
Recency Effect
good recall of the items presented at the end of the list
91
Contemporary
uses concepts related to the modal model to explain primacy and recency effects
92
Contemporary explanations to the primacy effect
seems to occur because the primacy items are repeatedly rehearsed and are therefore transferred into LTM where it can be easily retrieved later on
93
Contemporary explanations to the recency effect
Occurs because the recency items are still active (have not yet faded from STM) and TF can easily be remembered
94
Hull Theory:
attempts to explain the curve using two concepts (remote associations and interference's )
95
Interference
Is when items on a list become confused and TF are remembered poorly
96
(Hull's Theory) Assumptions (3)
1. Items between MANY REMOTE ASSOCIATIONS should experience HIGH levels of interference and TF should be remembered POORLY
2. Items b/w FEW REMOTE ASSOCIATIONS should experience LOW levels of interference and TF should be remembered WELL
3. Items b/w NO REMOTE ASSOCIATION should experience NO interference and TF should be remembered the BEST
97
(Hull's Theory) Implications
According to Hull's Theory items at the beginning and the end of the list should be b/w few remote associations and TF be remembered well
Items in the middle of the list re between many remote associations and TF should be remembered poorly b/c they experience high interference
98
What is the problem with Hull's theory?
that is can not explain the A-symmetrical shape of the curve that is typically found in real studies, Hull's theory predicts that it should be perfectly symmetrical which is almost never the case
99
Jevon's Study Purpose:
(The black bean study) was to examine iconic memory and how much iconic memory can be held at once
100
Jevon's Study Procedure
black beans and a white bucket
1. Jevon took a handful of black beans and attempted to toss the handful into the white bucket 10ft away
2. He gave his set. immediately after the beans had fallen into the bucket after each trial
3. he determined how accurate his set. was by comparing the set. to the number of beans that had actually fallen in the bucket
101
Jevon's study Results
1. Found his set. were relatively accurate when five or fewer beans had fallen into the bucket
2. In contrast he found that his est.. were generally inaccurate when more than five beans had fallen into the bucket
102
Are the findings found in Jovan's study consistent with thoughts on sensory memory
No, they are not consistent with thoughts on sensory memory since sensory memory is larger than short term memory it should hold more than 7 items
103
What was the correlation in Jovan's study?
Negative corr. b/w beans thrown and estimation accuracy
104
Averbach's study Purpose
to examine the capacity of iconic memory
105
Averbach's study Procedure:
Step 1
1. the number of dots varied trial to trial
2. The dots remained on the t-scope for 50 milliseconds at which point they disappeared
Step 2: est the number of dots they though they presented
106
Averbach's findings
He focused on the accuracy of the estimates
1. found that the accuracy was rather high when 5 or fewer dots were presented
2. in contrast accuracy was generally low when more than 5 dots were presented
AGIAN being inconsistent with the assumptions of iconic memory
107
Sperling's purpose
to examine the capacity of iconic memory
108
Sperling's Procedure
1.Presented with a matrix if digits and letters on a t-scope.
Items were presented randomly.
Presented for 50 milisec. before disappearing.
2. Participants had to recall the items seen on the matrix
109
Sperling's findings
Focused on the accuracy of recall
Findings were similar to that of Jovan's and Averbach's bc part. remembered 5 items accurately
Observation: important observation led to the partial report study which occurred during the debriefing
110
What was the observation that was found in Sperling's study and why was this important
That they ad claimed they had seen the items in the matrix, however the items faded before they could be recalled.
This is consistent with the idea that iconic memory had a large capacity but a short duration
111
Based on the observation that was found in Sperling's study is his study consistent with Iconic memory
Yes, bc Sperling assumed that the participant's had stored all the items in iconic memory but that had faded before they could be recalled
112
Sperling's Partial Report technique
Part. had to recall only a portion of items in the display. Portion simply meant only one row
113
Sperling's purpose of the partial Report Technique:
to examine the capacity and duration
114
Partial Report Technique (Procédure)
Step 1: part presented with a matrix of digits and letters for 50 milisec at which point the matrix disappeared
Step 2: part. heard a tone 0-1 seconds after the matrix disappeared in which the pitch of the tone randomly varied form trial to trial. pitch of tone indicated which row had to be recalled
Step 3: Part. had to recall items
115
What was the assumption of the Sperling's Partial Report Technique?
If participants had all items stored in iconic memory then they should be able to recall all the items in the cued row before they faded
116
Merikle's Test of the pre-categorical assumption:
Tested by asking part. to categorize memory info in iconic memory
117
Merkle's general procedure (selective attention)
In these tests part. had to selectively attend to some items in a display while ignoring other items (attending to letters and not digits)
118
What should happen if iconic memory is pre categorical?
The information remembered should be low, however if they show evidence of being able to selectively attend then that would not support the pre-categorical assumption
119
Sperlings Findings to to his Partial Report Technique:
Recall was near perfect when the delay was 0 seconds or very short
Recall decreased sharply (as the delay got longer) with increase in the length of delay
Recall was lowest in near floor when the delay was the longest
120
Are Sperlings findings to his partial report techniques consistent with the key assumptions?
yes
121
Why does information in iconic memory fade quickly?
Because it is pre categorical (before its possible)
122
Pre categorical means:
Info in iconic memory cannot be consciously analyzed or categorized bc info with iconic memory faded within 1 sec.
123
precategorical assumption; to address these cone.
3 conditions-Whole report, partial report by location, and partial report by category
124
Whole Report
presented with matrix and recalled all items if they could
125
Partial report by location:
presented with matrix and asked to recall in a particular row
126
Partial report by category
(Digits or letters) part. had to recall the items by categories, had to recall either digits or letters (hence categorize)
127
Findings of Merkle's Precategorical test and implications
(location and category) Indicated that recall in the 2 partial categorical locations was equivalent and high which contradicts assumptions and suggest that part. are able to categorize items in iconic memory
128
The two Effect of Echoic memory?
Modality and Suffix Effect (traced in the studies using serial and recall tests)
129
Modality Effect
refer to POOR recency recall when a suffix is presented at the end of a list, occurs when recency recall is better when the items are presented out loud then visually
130
Suffix Effect
Refer to poor recency recall when a suffix is presented at the end of a list
131
What is a suffix?
It is a distractor item that is designed to impair recency recall by interfering with recency items
132
Why is the focus on recency recall?
Bc it goes back to the echoic memory bc the echoic memory holds the echo of recently presented items hence the recency effect
133
Conrad and Hull's Modality Effect Study's purpose:
to examine the modality effect and to see if auditory items will be remembered as visual items
134
Conrad and Hull's Procedure
part. were presented with a series of items and had to recall as many as they could
135
Conrad and Hull's procedure had two conditions:
Read aloud (acoustic echo) and Read silently (no acoustic echo)
136
Conrad and Hull's Findings to their Modality effect study?
(Look at page 30)
modality (auditory items were remembered than visually)
Recency effect was relatively high in the aloud fond and low in the read silently cond.
137
Are these findings consistent with the modality effect?
yes, but also show that something else might be at work because the primacy effect is high as well...this is rehearsal
138
Pre-categorical Acoustic Store (PAS)
(used by Conrad and Hull) the component of echoic memory that holds the echo of recently presented auditory info.
139
PAS explanation of suffix effect:
(Similar) Theory is that in the similar position the similar sub. enters the PAS and INTERFERES with the recency items resulting in low recency recall
(Different) The theory os that the different suffix also enters the PAS but interferes less with the recency items (because it sounds different) resulting in higher levels of recency recall
140
Crowder's suffix Effect Experiment (Purpose):
To examine the suffix effect using a procedure
141
Crowder's Suffix Effect Experiment (procedure):
part. heard a series of items (digits they had to remember) and the a suffix at the end (no delay)
142
There were two conditions in Crowder's affix effect exp. and what design was it?
Speech suffix
Buzzer suffix
(between)
143
Speech Suffix:
part. heard the word "ready" of "zero"after the last item on the list. (speech sounds)
144
Buzzer Suffix:
In the suffix condition part. heard a buzzer sound "BZZZZZ" (non-speech sound)
145
Crowder's suffix effect predictions:
RECENCY RECALLwas expected to be LOW in the SPEECH cond. (where the acoustic qualities of the suffix overlap with the target items), in contrats the RECENCY RECALL was expected to be HIGH in the BUZZER COND. (where the acoustic qualities of the suffix overlap less with the target items.
146
Crowder's Suffix Effect Findings:
Predictions were confirmed, the suffix effect depends on the acoustic qualities of the suffix
If it overlaps it impairs recall , in contrast if the suffix does not over lap the recency recall is relatively unaffected
147
Modal Model
is a model of memory that consists of 3 diff components which are sensory memory, STM, and LTM
>recap on STM, LTM, SM and its characteristics (3)
148
2 assumptions of the modal model
Rehearsal is needed to maintain info in STM
| Rehearsal is needed to transfer info from STM to LTM
149
Brown-Peterson Paradigm
(Forgetting in STM) how quickly forgetting how STM is rehearsed
150
The Purpose of Brown-Peterson Paradigm
is to examine how quickly info in STM is forgotten when that info is not rehearsed
151
Predictions of the Brown-Peterson Paradigm
if info in STM is not rehearsed than that info will quickly fade and be forgotten
152
Procedure of the Brown-Peterson Paradigm
Part. are presented with a continent trigram (series of 3 continents) that they had to remember\
Part. heard a number and had to count back by 3s for 0-20 sec.
Try to recall trigram
153
(Brown-Peterson Para.) The effect of the delay interval: Why Counting back by 3's for 0-20 sec?
this was designed to prevent part. from rehearsing the trigram
Q:Whether the count back would prevent them from rehearsing and would lead to forgetting the trigram
154
Predictions of the Brown-Peterson Para.
If part. were to count back for a long time then they would be more likely to forget a trigram
155
Proportion Correct
| Distractor Duration
DD: Meas. how long they had to count back and how long they prevented from rehearsing the trigram
156
Serial Position Curve and the explanation which has already been gone through
good recall for items on a lost presented at the beginning and the end of the list relative to those in the middle of the list (primacy and recency effect)
157
Rundus and Atkin's Study of the Primacy Effect (Purpose):
to verify the primacy items are in fact repeatedly rehearsed which should result in them being transferred into LTM
158
Rundus and Atkin's General Approach:
to rehearse the items out loud at they were being presented but were not told on how to rehearse items, after this the number of times part. rehearsed each items was counted
159
Rundus and Atkin's General Prediction:
```
Primacy items (rehearsed more)
Recency items (rehearsed less)
```
160
Rundus and Atkin's Findings:
(p.58) 2 y-axis bc 2 DVs
Proportion correction was not the focus of the study
Primacy (rehearsed the most)=transferred to LTM
Recency(rehearsed the least)= not transfered to LTM
161
Glanzer and Cunitz's study of recency effect Purpose:
whether a recency effect could be obtained when the part. were prevented form rehearsing the recency items for an extended period of time
162
Glanzer and Cunitz's study of recency effect Procedure:
No, 10-s delay, 30-s delay
| Count-back test
163
Glanzer and Cunitz's study of recency effect Predictions and findings:
```
no conditions=high
30-s=lowest
10-s=intermediate
Confirmed
only effected the recall of the recency effect and not the primacy effect
```
164
Phonological Storage (PS)
the component of the loop that stores speech code
| Speech we hear+text we read AFTER its converted to speech code
165
Articulary Control Process (ACP)
2 Functions:
| Conversion and Rehearsal Function
166
What is the conversion function of the ACP?
is to convert text into speech cod, then to transfer that code into the PS where it can be consciously analyzed and thought about
167
What is the conversion function of the ACP?
is to rehearse speech code that is in the PS, to prevent that code from being forgotten
168
Which function is essential of the ACP?
Conversions function, why?
169
What happens if the ACP is not functioning properly?
the info can not be rehearsed and will quickly fade and be forgotten
170
Memory depends on two things, what are they?
Decay rate and Rehearsal Rate
171
Decay rate is:
measures how quickly info in the P-store will be forgotten when it is not rehearsed by the ACP
172
what is the assumption about decay rate?
the decay rate is only a few seconds if not rehearsed by the ACP
173
Rehearsal rate: (elaborate)
Measures how quickly info in the P-store can be rehearsed by the ACP
Info rehearsed quickly by the ACP=remembered well
Info rehearsed slowly by the ACP=fades and is forgotten
174
If info is not rehearsed
it can be forgotten
175
If info is rehearsed in the ACP it can
be maintained indefinitely in the P-store
176
Phonological Similarity Effect (PSE)
is the ability to focus on things (items) that sound similar of different from each other
Occurs when similar secondary items are remembered more poorly than distinct secondary items
177
i.e. letters in the alphabet ending with long vowel "ee" -->"d" pronounced "dee", "G" pronounced "gee", "E" pronounced "ee", "B" pronounced "bee"
PSE
| Phonological Similarity Effect
178
What is the theory for PSE?
focuses on interference of items that sound similar
Similar items=remembered poorly
Dissimilar items= remembered well
179
Would PSE be obtained for visual info?
Yes, a PSE should be obtained of the items are presented visually bc visual text must go to the ACP through the conversion function and then through the rehearsal function where a PSE might be obtained in the P-store
180
AS of PSEA failure to obtain a PSE (because similar and distinct items are both recalled poorly) when:
1. Items are presented visually
2. Part. have to engage in AS (articulatory suppression
bc conversion function of ACP is disabled and participants can't read target items.
181
Articulatory Suppression (AS)
Is an experimental definition that is designed to disable the ACP and specifically disable the conversion rehearsal functions of the ACP
182
the AS prevents part. from doing two things:
1. from converting text into speech code TF prevents items from being rehearsed in the P-store
2. from reading info that they have to remember bc it prevents part. from converting text into speech code
183
How does AS prevent PSE for visual items?
the items are still presented VISUALLY but there is NO CONVERSION INTO SPEECH CODE (bc ACP is disabled by AS) and therefore there is NO PSE
[this links to the "AS of PSE"
184
Would AS prevent PSE form auditory items?
With AS the items are still presented into AUDITORY format and still go DIRECTLY into the P-STORE without having been converted into speech code with the ACP and TF a PSE OCCURS
185
there is only one case where you see where there is "no PSE", why?
when there is a visual presentation
| why: bc of mnemonics
186
Suppose an individual is given a repeated memory task involving the following items presented in the following order: B, C, D, E, F, G. According to Hull's theory of trace conditioning, which item is between NO remote associations
G
187
Suppose you conducted a word length effect experiment involving two (and only two IVs: sex of participant (male or female) and length of words (short and long). Suppose further that the length of the words variable was a within subjects IV. Which type of design does the experiment use?
Mixed
| bc sex can only be between bc the person can only be a male or a female
188
In theory, which of the following memory systems permits conscious analysis of the information
LTM
STM
SM
STM
bc SM components are not supposed to allow conscious analysis and STM is a component of immediate memory
189
Irrelevant Speech Effect (ISE)
poor recall for items on a test when a relevant speech is playing in the background
190
Does ISE impair memory?
yes ISE impairs memory for a list of target items
191
Approach for testing ISE (2 conditions)
irrelevant speech vs. no irrelevant speech
IS- Ss heard irr. speech hear target item while irr. speech played in the background
NO IS- Ss hear target item but no IS in background
192
Findings of Irrelevant Speech:
memory poor when IS in background
| memory good when no IS in background
193
In the Irrelevant Speech study what does the theory focus on?
Interference
It's interference between target items that have to be remembered in relevant speech thats playing in the background that part. should ignore
194
What does the interference theory of Irrelevant Speech assume?
The irrelevant speech enters the P-store and interferes with the target items that have to be remembered which in turn impairs recall of target items
195
Would ISE be obtained with AS
It depends on whether the items are presented visually or out load
No if visually presented (no difference)
196
Why would there be no ISE obtained with AS if presented visually?
The ACP cannot convert the text into speech codes TF, not transferring them to the P-Store
197
Why would there be ISE obtained with AS if presented audibly?
If out loud then ISE is obtained bc it directly goes in to the PS, where interference occurs and memory is poor
198
WLE referring to ACP
Focus is on rehearsal rate
This quickly enters the PS by being rehearsed by the ACP
short words=easily and more quickly
long words=fade faster bc rehearsed slowly
more rehearsal better memory
199
would there be a WLE If part. engaged in AS
No, WLE would not be obtained with AS regardless of how the items are being presented (visually/auditory)
Visually=theory would be the ACP wont rehearse the short words better than long words.
This means there is no difference in the recall of short/long words
200
Is there a WLE if part. engaged in AS (audibly)?
No WLE will be obtained w/AS regardless if presentation.
| Bc the ACP will still be disabled by the AS and thus, will not rehearse short words faster than long words.
201
Selective Attention
Ability to something while avoiding tother things
202
Dichotic Listening task
is a task used to examine selective attention
2 channels:
Attended channel vs unattended channel
Shadowing (part. repeat out loud what the attended channel
203
(Purpose) Treisman's Dichotic Listening Paradigm
to examine selective attention using a dichotic listening task
204
Procedure for Treisman's Dichotic Listening Paradigm involved 2 phases:
that manipulated the type of messages being played
1. unrelated messages
- attended channels
- unattended channels
2. related messages
- attended channels
- unattended channels
205
Result for Treisman's Dichotic Listening:
Part. DO NOT completely ignore the message being played in the unattended channels, instead the results suggest that part. process the info in the unattended channel when that info is meaningful related to the attended channel
206
Divided Attention
Refers to the ability to attend to two or more things at once
207
Divided attention assumption:
dividing your attention generally impairs your performance on a task
208
referring to divided attention Duel task procedure Purpose:
used to examine the effect of Divided attention and to determine whether DA impairs performance
209
referring to divided attention (Duel task procedure) procedure:
Design:
2 conditions
w/in
single task vs. dual task.
single-driving on a ob. course looking at cones
dual-driving on ob. course while talking on cell
210
referring to divided attention Duel task procedure-predction
focuses on performing the primary task in the single and dual task conditions
performance on the primary task should be low in the dual task cond.
performance in the primary task should be high in the single task cone.
211
referring to divided attention Dual task procedure- theory
Interference theory
interference b/w the primary and secondary task
single= interference assumed to be low/none
dual=interference assumed to be high
212
Posner and Boise' Dual Task Study-Purpose
the study was to examine DIVIDED ATTENTION using a DUAL TASK PROCEDURE and to determine whether DIVIDED ATTENTION IMPAIRS PERFORMANCE
213
Posner and Boise' Dual Task Study- procedure
letter identification task
tone identification task
2 tasks at once:
1. (R hand) same/different (letter task) part. have to tell whether the letters are the same ror diff. from each other
2. (L hand) tone identification (tone task) part have to listen to a tone that is occasionally presented and responds by pressing a button
- 4 cond. manipulated when the tone was being presented while the letters appeared
1. before 1st letter appeared
2. same time as 1st letter
3. shortly before appearance of 2nd letter
4. same time as second letter
214
Nota Bene
not well
215
Posner and Boise' Dual Task Study- DV
RT to the tone predicted that reactions would differ across the 4 cond. (slow and fast in other cond.)
216
Posner and Boise' Dual Task Study- Predictions
RT slowest; (4) both the tone and letter task at the same time
RT fastest; (1) where part. would only have to respond to the tone
RT fast; (2) part. had to perform tone task but also had to process the first letter in the set
RT slow; (3) part. had to respond to the tone right before the second letter was presented
217
Posner and Boise' Dual Task Study-explaination for the predictions of the 3rd cond.
because part were anticipating the second letter and TF were dividing there attention from the tone and second task.
218
Effortful responses
assumed to interfere with one's ability to carry out other tasks
219
Automatic Responses
Part. have mastery, no longer need to exert a lot of effort
220
Referring to automatic vs effortful responses-dual task procedure:
(are used to determine whether a task is automatic or effortful)
221
Referring to automatic vs effortful responses; dual task deficit:
this occurs when performance on primary task is worse in dual task condition where part. have to perform two tasks
222
Referring to automatic vs effortful responses-Assumptions:
Experts=extensive experience=>no dual task deficit performing the primary tasks=>>Automatic response
Novice=no extensive experience=>dual task deficit performing primary tasks=>>effortful responses
223
Salthouse's study of expert typist-Purpose:
to examine automatic and effortful responses in expert and novice typist groups
224
Salthouse's study of expert typist-Procedure:
```
Experts= 20+ yrs experience typing everyday
Novices= less experience, knew how to type but not for a living
```
2 cond.
1. Single (primary) task: part had to type a memo as fast as they could w/out typing an error
2. Dual task: part,. had to type a memo as fast as they could (primary) & Shadow a speech they heard from a loud speaker
225
Salthouse's study of expert typist- Predictions
Confirmed?
TF?
Novice=dual task deficit=effortful responses
Experts= no dual task= automatic response
Yes, and experts also showed high levels in both performances
TF, Salthouse set. automatic response
226
Schneider and Schiffrin: Purpose
acquisition of automatic response through extensive practice
227
Schneider and Schiffrin: Phase 1
focused in a lab setting where amount of experience part. had could be precisely controlled.
228
Schneider and Schiffrin: Procedure- Phase 1
Constant discrimination task
| 1500 trials!
229
Schneider and Schiffrin: Findings Phase 1
First 100 trials
| Last 100 trials
230
Schneider and Schiffrin: Implications to Phase 1
The fact that RTs did not vary with the number of letters being presented is strong evidence that part. had acquired an automatic response
231
Schneider and Schiffrin: (phase 2)
Part. here were given 50 additional trials
232
Schneider and Schiffrin:: Procedure-Phase 2
Response requirements were switched, part. were told to respond YES it there was NO CONSTANT and NO if there WAS A CONSTANT
233
Schneider and Schiffrin: Prediction (phase 2)
Massive proactive interference due to the response requirements being fixed
234
Proactive Interference (PI)
when old learning (phase 1) interferes with new learning (phase 2).
235
(Nota Beta) Retroactive Interference (RI)
When new learning (phase 2) interferes with old learning (phase 1)
236
Schneider and Schiffrin: overall findings
confirmed that PI did occur in phase 2 relative to phase 1
237
Schneider and Schiffrin: DVs
RTs: were slower than at any time in phase 1 which included the very beginning of phase 1. In addition RTs did vary with the number of letters in the 70% with RTs being more slower
Accuracy: was relativly low which means that part. were not making mistakes/errors (Which is additional evidence for PI)
238
Schneider and Schiffrin: Explanation
Proactive interference slows RTs and low accuracy were attributed to PI b/w phase 1 and phase 2
i.e. driving in the UK compared to the US
239
Automatic and Effortful responses:
| Stroop and Proactive interference- Purpose
to present PI with an old and new response
240
(Stroop and Proactive interference)
| Old response:
is the tendency of adults to read simple words that are presented to them
241
(Stroop and Proactive interference)
| New response:
(novel response) is to say out load the ink color in which a word color is printed in
242
(Stroop and Proactive interference) Procedure
In both conditions part. have to name the color in which the stimuli are printed
243
(Stroop and Proactive interference) DV: & define
Completion time-measures how quickly part have to name the color in which the stimuli are printed
244
(Stroop and Proactive interference) Findings & Why?
completion differed sign across the 2 condition
CT: relatively fast in the color square condition
CT: relatively slow in the color word condition
b/c of PI can explain the interference in the color word condition
Old response= the tendency to read the words
Novel response= it the instructions to adults to name the color in which the word ID printed
245
Ebbinghause's "Total Time" Hypothesis: (Hypothesis)
predicts that the total time info. that is studied is positively associated with how well the info is remembered (predicts the more you study the better you should remember)
246
Ebbinghause's "Total Time" Hypothesis: Procedure
sing a variation of forgetting paradigm that involved 2 steps
1. Ebb. manipulates the total amount of time he spent studying a list of nonsenze syll.
2. attempted to recall the nonsense syllables
247
Ebbinghause's "Total Time" Hypothesis: Findings
confirmed the predictions of the total time hypothesis
That is memory was relatively high when the syllables had been studied for a long period of time
in contrast memory was poor when the syll. had been studied for a short period of time
248
Distributed Practice Effect- Hypothesis
(spacing) It is better to space out learning trials thinly across period of time than to mass them together into a single learning block
249
Distributed Practice Effect-procedure
distributed vs massed vs (nota beta)total study time constant
250
Distributed Practice:
part study over several short interval with rest periods between them
251
Massed Practice:
Study over one long continuous interval with NO rest periods
252
NB: total study time constant:
nota beta-the total mount of time studying each conditions is the same in the distributed and mass condition
253
Distributed Practice Effect-findings
Memory is relatively high in the distributed and relatively low in the massed
254
Distributed Practice Effect-Theory (2)
Rehearsal function
| Neurotransmitter replacement
255
Distributed Practice Effect- Rehearsal function
focuses on the rehearsal (of the target info.) during a rest period in a distributed practice study (subconscious level)
256
Rehearsal in the rest periods is assumed to differ in the following periods: (Explain)
Distributed: info is rehearsed during rest periods and is TF transferred to LTM
Massed: Info. is not rehearsed during rest periods bc there are not any TF memory is relatively poor
Focus of theory: is if the subconscious occurs during rest periods of not
257
Neurotransmitter Replacement
Distributed condition: lost NTS are assumed to be replace during rest periods and TF memory is good
Massed: Lost NTS can not be replaced during rest periods bc there are none
258
chemicals in the brain that are needed for learning in memory but that are lost during periods of intense cognitive activity those same NTS are replaced during rest periods which occur when taking study breaks, which enhances learning in memory
Neurotransmitters
259
Distributed Practice Effect
Studies that manipulate length of a study interval per day
260
Distributed Practice Effect-Predictions
memory is predicted to be higher in distributed cone. and lower in the massed cone. where part. study cone of fewer days
261
Baddeley & Longman's (1978) Study: Purpose
was to examine the effect of shorter and longer study intervals per day on memory
shot-1hr
long-2hr
262
Baddeley & Longman's (1978) Study: Background
field study
| train postal workers to type zip codes as fast as the could w.out making any errors
263
Baddeley & Longman's (1978) Study: Procedure
manipulated the amount of study time they had each day
Distributed: 1 hr each day for 10 days
Massed: 2 hrs each day for 5 days
^ totaling 10 hours of practice
264
Baddeley & Longman's (1978) Study: DV
the number of codes typed correctly per hr of prac.
265
Baddeley & Longman's (1978) Study: Findings
```
performance
# of codes practiced per hour differed
high=dis. cond. (10 days)
Low=massed cond. (5 days)
```
266
Baddeley & Longman's (1978) Study: caveat regarding satisfaction
satisfaction was measured after
| Dis. part, had lower levels of satis. even though they showed higher levels of performance
267
Baddeley & Longman's (1978) Study: why the caveat
Badd. and Long.argued that the part. of the diet. cond. felt that they were not making as much progress in learning the type of codes as the massed part. On a per-day bases
268
Studies that manipulate Length of rest interval
| Procedure and predictions:
Procedure:
long rest interval (distributed)=full day to rest with study periods
No or shory rest interval (massed=1 min of rest b/w study periods
Predictions:
Memory=
high-distributed
lower-massed
269
Lorge's study "mirror tracing task": Purpose
to examine the effect of rest interval in the study
270
Lorge's study "mirror tracing task":
| materials and procedure
```
trace the star with the stylus
20 trials
-put the stylus into the star
-part. could only see their reflection of their hand in the mirror
-these are more motor tasks
```
271
Lorge's study "mirror tracing task":
| DVs
Completion time : amount of time it took part. to trace the star
Errors: he amount of time the part. touched the star with the stylus
Higher completion time and errors= lowered accuracy (poorer levels of performance)
272
Lorge's study "mirror tracing task": 3 conditions
manipulate the rest interval b/w trials, the amount of time part. had to break b/w trials
massed (no rest)
(1 min)
distributive (1 day)
273
Lorge's study "mirror tracing task": design, why?
within, because you have to rest more sub. if between was used
274
Lorge's study "mirror tracing task": Predictions
- lorge's (high intermediate, low)
- best=1day
- worst=massed
- intermediate=1 min.
Confirmed, longer rest intervals were associated with better performance
275
Levels of Processing
(LOP)focuses on your ability to remember text, how text is processed
276
LOP types of processing (2)
Shallow
| Deep
277
Shallow LOP
perceptual feat.; refers to processing the perceptual feat. of text
i.e. shape of the text book,overhead, laptop, sound of text when it is read
278
Deep LOP
refers to processing the semantic properties of the text which refers to the meaning of the text being read
- the category to which concept belongs (knowing that a dog is an animal)
- various details (dogs chase cats)
279
Why are these two types of processings important?
bc the 2 type have diff. consequences to memory
- shallow:poor text being read
- deep: produces good memory for the text being read b/c you are now processing the meaning and the semantic process of the text
Import. academic and practical reasons
280
Assumptions of LOP
1. 2 types of processing
2. shallow processing OCCURS BEFORE deep processing:
3. Deep Processing ENHANCES memory:
4. 2 types of rehearsal
281
1.) two types of processing (LOP)
```
Shallow:
-perceptual feat.
-manipulations(induce shallow proc.)
Deep:
-Semantic features (meaning)-> manipulations
```
282
2.) Shallow processing occurs before deep processing: this processing focuses on...
the temporal sequence
283
T/F people must process text at a shallow level before a deep level
True
284
3.) Deep processing enhances memory: this is based on a general principle of memory-
the more unique ways info is encoded, the better that info is remembered
285
Shallow processing produces 2 unique codings:
shape
sound
TF is assoc. with poor memory
286
Deep processing produces 3 unique coding's of text:
shape, sound, and semantics
| TF is assoc. with better memory
287
4.) 2 types of rehearsal
Maintenance
| Elaborative
288
Maintenance (LOP)
generally assoc. with poor memory
Rote rehearsal (rehearsing info mindlessly without understanding its information)
Poor memory
289
Elaborative (LOP)
Semantic rehearsal and is generally assoc. with good memory
Semantic rehearsal: rehearsing info. while also trying to understand its meaning and elaborating on it
Good memory
290
Craik and Tulving's study of shallow and deep processing: Purpose
created the theory:
| to examine the effect of shallow processing and deep processing on memory
291
Craik and Tulving's study: Assumptions
memory would depend on # of unique ways text was encoded
good memory=more unique ways
poor memory=less unique ways
292
Craik and Tulving's study: Predictions (2)
Shallow=produce few unique codings
| Deep= produce more unique codings
293
Craik and Tulving's study: Procedure
Part would be presented with diff. words
Part would have to discriminate b/w these words based on different criteria
Part. were not told that they would be given am incidental memory test (surprise memory test)
294
Craik and Tulving's study: are incidental tests given?
b/c experimenter does not want participants to engage in deep processing
295
Craik and Tulving's study: what were the 3 conditions?
case, rhyme, sense
Case: is "CAT" written in uppercase (shallow)
Rhyme: Does cat rhyme with hat? (deep)
Sense: Does cat fit into this sentence? "The dog chased the ____." (deep)
296
Craik and Tulving's study: These conditions were made to...
for some to induce shallow processing and some deep
297
Craik and Tulving's study: DVs
Latencies and Recognition
298
Latencies:
Measured how quickly part. responded (yes or no)
299
Craik and Tulving's study: predictedLatencies would differ:
| was this confirmed?
```
bw conditions
Slowest=sense condition
Fastest= case
Intermediate=Rhyme
CONFIRMED
```
300
Craik and Tulving's study: Recognition measured by:
prediction:
was this confirmed?
the incidental test
High=sense condition
Low=case condition
Intermediate= Rhyme condition
301
Craik and Watkins (LOP) (1973): Purpose
tested the idea that maintenance rehearsal does not lead to improved memory
302
Craik and Watkins (LOP) (1973): Procedure
they induced part. to use maintenance rehearsal by telling them special instructions
-part. were to listen to a list of items
-reported the last word that began with a particular letter "G"
"daughter, oil, rifle, garden, grain, table, football, anchor, giraffe
-"i" =how long an item was rehearsed
(garden=0, grain=3, giraffe=7
-end of each trial part. would report the one item required then next trial began
-final manipulation=incidental memory test
-part had to report as many critical items as they could
303
Craik and Watkins (LOP) (1973): Findings
| confirmed?
final recall was unrelated to the "i" value
recall of an item was uncorrelated with how long it had been rehearsed using maintenance rehearsal
TF confirming predictions
304
Craik and Watkins (LOP) (1973): Why are these findings important?
b/c it poses a problem for the Modal Model
| This is b/c the results suggest that time spent in Short-term store can be unrelated to subsequent recall
305
TAP
Transfer Appropriate Processing
attempts to extend and address the prob. with LOP
a type of processing will lead to better memory performance if it is appropriate for the particular test; no one good type of processing is good for all test.
306
The difference b/w LOP and TAP:
2 predictions that TAP makes:
In contrast to LOP
TAP- considers both encoding and retrieval
LOP- only considers encoding
1. Good memory=encoding/retrieval the same
2. Poor memory=encoding/retrieval are diff.
307
Ebbinghaus's Consolidation Theory:
forgetting occurs b/c info in memory is not properly stored and TF fades and is forgotten (info is not rehearsed)
308
Ebb. Consolidation theory is forgetting due to:
storage failures
309
Ebbinghaus's Interference Theory:
forgetting occurs for different reasons;
| forgetting occurs b/c info in memory ca not be retrieved at a later time (typically b/c of insufficient cues)
310
Ebb. Interference Theory is forgetting due to:
retrieval failures
311
Assumptions of Consolidation Theory (5)
1. Two stages of processing: Preservation Consolidation
2. (forgetting) Disrupting preservation produces forgetting
3. Enhancing preservation produces consolidation
4. P and C are linked in neural events
312
Two stages of processing:
Preservation
Consolidation
These two stages must occurs before information is stored in LTM
313
Preservation (P):
preparatory stage of processing in which info. in memory is subconsciously rehearsed
1. Preparatory stage: this occurs before info is stored in LTM
2. Subconscious rehearsal: is rehearsal that occurs without conscious awareness, in other words this is rehearsal that occurs within the brain
314
Consolidation (C):
refers to the final stage of processing in which info is now stored in LTM after being subconsciously rehearsed
315
What is the goal of the consolidation theory?
to reach consolidation
316
(Forgetting) Consolidation Theory:
| 2. Disrupting preservation produces forgetting:
is assumed to impair subconscious rehearsal which in turn prevents consolidation and produces forgetting
317
What are some events that disrupt preservation?
```
Remaining awake (rather than sleeping)
Head Trauma
```
318
Why does remaining awake (rather than sleeping) disrupt preservation?
b/c it exposes people to distractions that impair subconscious rehearsal
319
Why does head trauma disrupt preservation?
b/c people who experience this are assumed to have impaired subconscious rehearsal
320
(Forgetting) Enhancing preservation produces consolidation:
is assumed to increase subconscious rehearsal which in turn increases consolidation and improves memory
321
What are some events that enhance preservation?
Sleeping after you learn something is assumed to enhance preservation because is minimizes distractions
322
4. P and C are linked to neural events:
P is linked to "reverberation"
| C is linked to physiological changes in the brain
323
P is linked to "reverberation" refers to...
a repetition of neural firing to a stimulus (lecture) that has been presented, this repetition is a type of brain rehearsal in response to a stimulus
324
C is linked to physiological changes in the brain: including...
chnages in neuro-transmitter (chemicals in the brain that are needed in order for memory to occur) that are depleted
Hence, Citocolin levels: found in Alzheimer's pts.
325
5. Predictions (summary that have been discussed)
- Sleeping enhances P and C
- -Sleeping--> ^ P>^ good memory
- Remaining awake disrupts P and C
- -Awake-->(down) P-->(down) C (forgetting)
- Head Trauma-->(down) P-->(down) C (forgetting)
326
Ebb. forgetting Paradigm: (3 Phases)
| Problem?
Learning
Sleep/Awake
Relearning
Ebb. was both exp. and part.
327
Jenkin's Dallenbach's study (effect of sleep on memory) Purpose:
- to examine the effect on memory and to see if sleep enhanced memory
- to examine whether the effects of sleep depended on how long subjects
328
Jenkin's Dallenbach's study: Procedure
Learning: (list of words)
Sleep/Awake (delay 1,2,4, or 8 hrs)
Test: part. had to attempt to remember the words that they had studied after having slept of remain awake
329
Jenkin's Dallenbach's study: what was the problem?
How to get students to stay awake for 8 hours
330
Test of TAP; procedure
Same: semantic encoding and semantic retrieval
Different: semantic encoding and phonological retrieval
331
Test of TAP: Predictions
High-same condition
| Low-different condition
332
In the Test of TAP what would LOP predict?
Semantic coding is required in both conditions and semantic encoding (deep processing) should give highest reading
333
Morris's Test of TAP: Purpose
memory should be good when encoding and retrieval are the same
To test prediction of TAP
334
Morris's Test of TAP: Procedure (phase 1)
Study(encoding)
Cond. 1:(Phonological) part. given a list of words and had to process there phonological qualities (rhymed?)
Cond. 2: (Semantic) presented w/list of words and processes their semantic qualities by seeing if the words fit into the scent. by using C&T procedure
Test (Retrieval)
Cond. 1: (Phonological) part. presented with a list of words and had to det. whether each item had rhymed with one they had seen previously
Cond. 2: (Semantic) part. presented w/ old and new words
335
Why was a traditional (semantic) test conducted?
to examine semantic processing
336
Morris's Test of TAP: Predictions-
| Confirmed?
High=phono. encoding + phono. retrieval (rhyme)
Low=phono. encoding + sem. retrieval (trad.)
Low=Sem. encoding + Phono. retrieval (rhyme)
High=Sem. encoding + Sem. retrieval (trad.)
CONFIRMED!
337
Retrieval Failure
the inability to access info. stored in LTM
| due to insufficient cues
338
Retrieval
getting information out of LTM using cues
339
Retrieval and TAP
predictions involving retrieval in LTM should be good if encoding and retrieval processes are similar
340
Retrieval Failures: Computer metaphor
describes a retrieval failure in terms of broken comp hard drive that is not used to access info. stores in it
341
Tip-of-the-tongue
real phenomenon:
occurs when a person is unable a specific piece of info. but is able to recall a portion of the info. and experiences a strong feeling of "know" for the info.
feeling a "knowing" indicates that the person is confident, that person has stored the info in memory but can not recall it at the moment
342
Tulving's Encoding Specificity Principle (ESP): focus-
(effectiveness of retrieval cues)
| how well retrieval cues help you remember
343
Tulving's Encoding Specificity Principle (ESP): Predictions (2)
1. retrieval cues should improve memory when they are encoded during a previous study period
2. retrieval ques should not improve memory when they are not encoded during a previous study period
344
Tulving's Encoding Specificity Principle (ESP): Relations to TAP (which focus on processes which include _______ and ________ processes)
1. memory is good when retrieval and encoding processes are the same
2. memory should be poor when retrieval and processes are different from each other
(phonological and semantic)
345
Thompson & Tulving's study: Purpose
was to test the ESP predictions...which are
346
Thompson & Tulving's study: type of cues
Strong cues: cues that typically elicit the recall of particular a word when they are presented to part.
"BOOLM->FLOWER"
Weak cues:are cues that rarely elicit the recall of a particular word when they are presented to part.
"FRUIT -> FLOWER"
347
Thompson & Tulving's study: Procedure
- part. presented with items they had to remember
- 2 conditions: manipulated types of cues that were presented at encoding and retrieval
1. no cue
2. weak cue
348
Thompson & Tulving's study: 1st phase
Study
-No Cue
-weak cues
part w/the items that they had to remember without being presented with cues
presented with items that had to be remembered and each items were paired with a weak cue
(part. were also told to remember the item w/the cue together that way they could pair it later on)
349
Thompson & Tulving's study: 2nd phase
| Test
part. had to recall target items
350
Thompson & Tulving's study:
| what were the three conditions for the target items under the test phase?
no cue
weak cue
strong cue
351
Thompson & Tulving's study: 2nd set predictions concerned part. who received weak cues for flower:
Confirmed?
Is this prediction consistent with ESP?
What was the reason that T&T gave for the results?
Highest recall=no cue condition
Low recall=weak and strong conditions
CONFIRMED!
YES!
Recall was low in the strong and weak conditions b/c the interference of the weak cues for the items and TF memory was relatively low
352
Jenkin's Dallenbach's study:
(regarding first purpose)
(main effect of state)
focuses on whether part. slept or remained awake
| Focuses on whether memory differed with part. who slept or remained awake
353
Jenkin's Dallenbach's study: Predictions
| Confirmed?
Sleep: memory should be high for those who sleep and are exposed to fewer distractions
Awake: in contrast, consolidation theory predicts that memory should be LOW for part. who remained awake b/c they are exposed to distractions which should interrupt rehearsal and TF memory
CONFIRMED!!
354
Jenkin's Dallenbach's study:
(regarding 2nd purpose)
State & delay interaction:
examined whether the effect of state depended on how long part. slept or remained awake
355
Jenkin's Dallenbach's study:
(Predictions)
based on state & delay interaction
Confirmed?
there would be no or little difference in memory for part. who slept or remained awake
(state: slept/awake)
Low Memory=slept, b/c part would have had insufficient time to subconsciously rehearse
Low Memory=awake, bc part. would be exposed to distractions
Long delay=memory would differ in the sleep/awake condition
Sleep=high memory, b/c part. would be able to subconsciously rehearse
Awake=poor memory, b/c part would be exposed to more distractions that would impair memory
CONFIRMED!
356
Retrograde amnesia (RA)
The inability to remember things that have occurred BEFORE the event that caused the amnesia
357
Duncan's study administering RA: Purpose:
examined whether RA was more likely to impair memory for the events shortly before the amnesia vs. long after the amnesia
358
ECS
a procedure that involves shocking the brain and induces retrograde amnesia
(sometimes used for clinical pts. who are not responsive to treatment
359
Duncan's study administering RA:
| Procedure
rats had to learn an Escape Avoidance Response (EAR)
1. light is occasionally turned on
2. the floor is electrified after the light is turned on
3. the rat has to jump from the electrified side to the non-electrified side of the box
4. eventually the rat learns to jump from the E side to the non-E side before getting shocked
360
Duncan's study administering RA:
| conditions under procedure:
(20 min, 4 hrs, control)
20min.-rat received ECS 20min after the learning phase(shortly after L-phase=forgetting
4hrs.-rat received ECS long after, Duncan thought that this would NOT induce forgetting
Control- no ECS
Retest- rats were tested to see if they remembered the EAR
361
Duncan's study administering RA: Predictions
Worse-20 sec.
Best-Control/4hr
CONFIRMED
362
Bousfield (1953) Custer
presented the words in random order and found that subjects clustered
363
A resolution that was found in clustering is that
both similarities and differences, both help reflect particular types of processing
364
Hunt et al. (1981;1993) emphasize the importance of relational and item specific processing, that is:
Which concludes that:
organization emphasize relational processing (how items fit together)
whereas, item-specific processing emphasizes the to-be-remembered item
Memory is BEST when BOTH processes occur
365
without knowledge of the to-be remembered items memory would-
However, relational processing can
poor
help provide cues that quickly produce the desired info.`
366
Collins Quillian (1969) converted a model
for storing generic information in a computer into a testable model of human knowledge.
367
Collins Quillian (1969) describing:
black dot: category name/concept
arranged: hierarchical fashion
- general concepts at the top
- specifics are further down
368
Collins Quillian (1969) what is the general principle for this model?
cognitive economy b/c each property is listed as few times as possible
369
Collins Quillian (1969) predictions
1. retrieving a property and traversing take time
2. times are additive whenever one step is dependent on the completion of another
3. the time to retrieve a property is independent of the level of the hierarchy
370
Collins Quillian (1969) procedure:
```
--.part given 2 kinds of scent. to verify
P scent.=sentences that involved properties
P0 "canary can sing"
P1
P2
S scent.=superset relations
S0 "canary is a canary"
S1
S2
--3 exp.
--T/F scent.
```
371
```
Collins Quillian (1969) predicts
Confirmed?
```
two parallel lines, with the property line higher than the superset (p.226)
CONFIRMED!!
372
```
Collins Quillian (1969)
What were the 2 main problems
```
1. no clear way of explaining performance on the false sentences
- -They presented 3 diff hypothesis in which none gave a good account of performance
2. model was proposed as a specific test of the simplest version of the model and it made assumptions that were stricter than necessary
(what they acknowledged was inaccurate with there model)
373
```
Collins Quillian (1969)
what were the 3 hypothesis that they considered
```
1. the contradiction hypothesis; search stops when a contradiction is reached
2. the unsuccessful search hypothesis; search stops when a certain criterion is met
3. the search and destroy hypothesis; search continuous until all possible connections are evaluated
