Final Flashcards by Marli Verbanes

Visible only with a microscope

Microscopic

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Visible to the naked eye

Macroscopic

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Distance between the specimen and outer objective lens

Working distance

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The ability of a lens system to show fine details of the object being observed

Resolution

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Area visible when you look through microscope

Field

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Enlarging the size of something

Magnification

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Used to separate liquid from solid using a high speed spinning process

Centrifuge

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Liquid portion of blood

Supernatant

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Solid component of a sample such as blood cells

Sediment

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2 types of centrifuges

Horizontal (swing arm) and angled

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Turns off centrifuge at preset time

Timer

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Sets the speed of centrifuge

Tachometer

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If sample is spun too long or fast

It will rupture cells and morphology

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If ran too slow or not long enough

Will not separate sample

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Used to count cells

Cell counter

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Measure the concentration of solids in a liquid

Refractometer

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When using a refractometer with urine, it measures

Specific gravity (SG)

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If using a refractometer, you measure

Total protein (TP)

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SG and TP are directly proportional to it’s

Conentration

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Readings on the refractometer will always be

Greater than 0 (water is 0)

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Specialized slide with etched grids is used to count white and red blood cells and platelets

Hemacytometer

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Used to heat slides or samples

Bunsen burner

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Keeps blood tubes at an even distribution

Blood rocker

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Use liquid and dry reagents or slides that contain dry reagents

Blood chemistry machines

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Reagent impregnated slides, pads, or cartilage

Dry system blood chemistry

Used lypholized reagent or already prepared liquid reagent

Liquid system blood chemistry

Use a bulk reagent and is most expensive

Unitized systems (vet test)

Used only if a single test is needed or emergency situations

Dedicated use analyzes

Available for use in the field

Handheld analyzer

Generates hematologist data for the CBC | Counts cells and determines hematocrit, HGB conc, and MCHC

Whole Blood Machines aka hematology machines

The temperature an incubator should be kept at

37 degrees Celsius

Platelets are also called

Thrombocytes

WBC

White blood cells | Fight infection

RBC

Red blood cells | Carry oxygen

HCT

Hematocrit | % of blood cells in a whole blood sample

MCHC

Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration | Amount of HGB in blood

RDW

Red cell distribution width | How wide a RBC is

Size of a canine blood cell

7 microns

Do not measure exact volumes

General glassware

Examples of general glassware

Blood tubes, Petri dish, culture tubes, Erlenmeyer flask, centrifuge tubes, beaker

Transfers, delivers, and stores exact amounts by permanently etched calibration marks

Volumetric glassware

Examples of volumetric glassware

Graduated cylinder , volumetric pipette, Pasteur pipette, volumetric flask

When testing blood, patients should fast for

12 hrs

If patient doesn't fast the blood sample will be

Lipemic

Samples not used within an hour should be

Refrigerated

After a sample is refrigerated, it needs to be brought to _________ and mixed again

Room temperature

Collect enough blood to complete a test

3 times

Should never be frozen Use of anticoagulant tubes is recommended Mixed by gentle inversion

Whole blood

Fluid portion of whole blood

Plasma

Plasma is made of

90% water and 10% dissolved substances

Located between plasma and RBCs

Buffy coat

Contains WBCs and platelets

Buffy coat

Fluid portion of clotted blood

Serum

Chemicals that when added to whole blood prevent clotting

Anticoagulants

Purple top tube

EDTA Choice anticoagulant for hematology Used for hematologic studies because it doesn't alter cell morphology

Blue top tube

Sodium citrate | Used in transfusion medicine and coagulation studies

Green top tube

Heparin | Used for blood pH and ammonia levels for blood chemistries

Gray top tube

Sodium fluoride/potassium oxalate | Glucose testing

Yellow top tube

Acid citrate | Used for transfusion medicines and blood cultures

Marble and red top tube

No anticoagulant

Blood transports

``` Oxygen and carbon dioxide Waste products Nutrients Enzymes Hormones Plasma proteins ```

Blood controls

Water and pH range

Blood regulates

Electrolytes

Blood is made up of

``` Erythrocytes Leukocytes Thrombocytes Plasma Serum ```

Erythrocytes are produced in

Bone marrow

Iron containing protein attached to RBCs

Hemoglobin

The body's army

Leukocytes

5 types of Leukocytes

``` Basophils Eosinophils Neutrophils Lymphocytes Monocytes ```

Fragment cells produced by megakaryocytes

Platelets

What allows platelets to stick together?

Jagged edges

Straw colored fluid in which blood cells are suspended and helps maintain body temp, transporting BCs, and maintaining pH

Plasma

Plasma is made of

90-92% water

Plasma without fibrinogen that helps platelets clot

Serum

Measures the percent of RBCs in a whole blood

PCV | Aka hematocrit

Curved portion of plasma

Meniscus

Yellow plasma

Icterus | Seen in animals with kidney dz

Red plasma

Hemolysis

White plasma

Cloudy, lipemic

Red Buffy coat

Immature RBCs or hemolysis

If Buffy coat is thick or large it could indicate

Infection or inflammation

To seal a hematocrit tube you must use

Clay

Normal canine PCV

37-55%

Normal feline PCV

30-45%

Total plasma solids

Measures protein concentration in the blood

Normal canine and feline TP

6-7.5 g/dL

Produced by the liver and immune system

Common proteins

A protein that is measured to diagnose liver dz | Maintains osmotic pressure of plasma and binds and transports protein in blood

Albumin | Big Al

Synthesized in the liver | Transports and binds proteins

Globulin

Synthesized in the liver | Precursor to fibrin

Fibrinogen

Main component of RBCs that carries oxygen

Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin is made of __ parts iron and __ part protein

4:1

HGB =

PCV/3 g/dL

RBC ct=

PCV/6 x10^6/microliter

Used to help classify anemia

RBC indices

measures average size of RBCs

MCV

MCV=

PCV/RBC ct x 10 fl

Measures average weight of hemoglobin in an average RBC

MCH

MCH=

HGB/RBC ct x 10 pg

Measures the concentration of hemoglobin in the average RBC

MCHC

MCHC=

HGB/PCV x 100 g/dL *should be 33.3 or 1/3

Normal cells

Normocytic

Large cells

Macrocytic

Small cells

Microcytic

Least accurate of RBC indices

MCH

Normal colored

Normochromatic

Lack of color

Hypochromic

Excessively red cells

Hyperchromic

Disc shaped cells

Discocytes

Average life span of blood cells

120 days

Average size of canine RBCs

7 microns

Relatively large, biconcave discs with a distinct central pallor Occasional nRBC and Howell-jolly bodies

Canine RBCs

Round with less distinctive central pallor | Smaller and more variable in size and shape

Feline RBCs

Smaller than dog RBCs with less distinct central pallor | No reticulocytes

Equine RBCs

Variation in size as compared to canine RBCs | Slight variation in shape and size

Ovine (sheep)

Slight variation in size and have less distinct central pallor

Bovine

Extremely small in size and less distinct central pallor | Common to have slight variations in size and shape

Caprine

Cells are elliptical and lack central pallor

Llamas

Oval and have a nucleus

Parrot RBCs

Bridging/clumping of RBCs | Seen in animals with immune mediated disorders

Agglutination

Grouping of erythrocytes in chains or stacks | Seen regularly in horses and animals with inflammatory dz

Rouleaux

Rouleaux vs Agglutination

Rouleaux can be seperated with saline, agglutination cannot

Erythrocytes with abnormal shapes for the species at hand

Poikilocytes

Sphere shaped with little to no central pallor Smaller and more dense than normal RBCs Could indicate IMHA

Spherocytes

IMHA

Immune mediated hemolytic anemia

Ruptured RBCs that lose their hemoglobin that results in an empty shell Pale in color Indicates intravascular hemolysis

Ghost cells

RBCs with peripheral clear area and displaced hemoglobin | Formed when there is excessive oxidant stress in association with Heinz bodies, keratocytes, and schistocytes

Eccentrocytes

Crenation Evenly spaced surface projections that are sharp and blunt Uniform in size that differentiate them from acanthocytes Seen in association with renal dz

Echinocytes

Similar to echinocytes in canines but they are elongated in felines Multiple blunt surface projections Renal dz may be present

Burr cells

Spur cells 2-10 irregularly shaped blunt surface projections Due to changes in cholesterol and phospholipids in cell membrane Liver dz and hemangiosarcoma

Acanthocytes

Rupture to form keratocytes

Blister cell

2 uniform hornlike projections due to areas of damage Arise from a blister cell Seen with schistocytes and acanthocytes

Keratocytes

Occurs with iron-deficiency anemia

Hypochromasia

Pronounced central pallor with faint staining membranes

Hypochromic cells

Punched out cells | Abnormal spreading of cells on slide

Torocytes

Elongated mouth like area of central pallor | Regenerative anemia, liver dz, and lead poisoning

Stomatocytes

Elliptocytes/ pencil cells Poor technique or plasma viscosity Normal in camels, goats, and sheep

Ovalocytes

Target cells | Extra round membrane in the middle of the cell

Codocytes

Bar cells | Central bar shapes out folding of the membrane

Knizocytes

Fragments of RBCs Result from mechanical damage in circulation, microvascular abnormalities, or shearing of RBCs due to intravascular trauma Associated with DIC

Schistocytes

Tear shaped | Seen in animals with myelofibrosis

Dacrocytes

Most accurate of RBC indices

MCHC

The formation of blood cells

Hematopoiesis

In the fetus, hematopoiesis takes place in

liver and spleen

____________ takes over making blood cells as it develops

Bone marrow

Active bone marrow

Red

Inactive bone marrow

yellow

All blood cells are produced from the

PPSC Pluripotent stem cell AKA common ancestor cell

Hormone responsible for RBC production and stimulates the stem cell to divide and produce RBCs

Erythroprotein (EPO)

What does hypoxia have to do with EPO?

When the body lacks oxygen, it needs to produce more RBCs to carry oxygen.

Production of RBCs

Erythropoiesis

Maturing RBCs get ________ as they mature

smaller

Cytoplasmic color goes from ____________ to __________ in maturing RBCs

Basophilic blue | Red

The __________ shrinks in size as RBC matures until it eventually disappears altogether

nucleus

How many days does it take for an RBC to mature?

``` Most immature RBC Lg roung cell with lg. nucleus Coarsely granular chromatin (freckled) Basophilic blue cytoplasm ___ % in bone marrow Nucleus to cytoplasm ratio is 7:1 ```

Rubriblast | 1%

Smaller than rubriblast Prominent perinuclear zone (white ring around the nucleus) Cytoplasm and nucleus stain ___% in bone marrow

Prorubricyte | 3-4%

``` Centrally located round nucleus Smaller than prorubricyte Irregular clear areas between chromatin clumps Early stages: stains blue Later stages: stains red Hemoglobin is starting to be produced ___% in bone marrow ```

Rubricyte | 35%

``` AKA Nucleated RBC Smaller than rubricyte Nucleus contains dense chromatin May be seen circulating in blood when sudden blood loss or destruction of RBCs occurs ___% in bone marrow ```

Metarubricyte | 57%

``` Don't have a nucleus Still immature but can carry oxygen Could indicate regenerative anemia Not good to see in horses Once they sit too long in marrow, they are kicked out and the spleen removes the nucleus ```

Polychromatophil/Reticulocytes

No nucleus Reddish orange color Biconcave discs Central pallor

RBCs

RBCs should contain _____% hemoglobin

33.3%

Blue pieces of nucleus left behind by the spleen

Basophilic nuclear remnants

basophilic nuclear remnants Dark blue and perfectly round inclusion Found in patients with splenic disorders, regenerative anemia, and spelenectomized pts One per cell usually

Howell Jolly Bodies

In mammals, indicates early release of immature cells when anemia is present

nRBCs

Presence of small, round, dark blue granules Observed with Wright's Stain or Diff quik Found in immature RBCs in ruminants, anemic pts, lead poisoning, certain drugs, and septicemia

Basophilic stippling

Present in the acute phase of infection with canine distemper Large cluster of virus particles that goes away when the animal is not in acute phase

Distemper viral inclusion bodies

Round structures often projecting from the surface of the RBC Caused by certain oxidant drugs or chemicals Form when hemoglobin denatures Normal healthy cats can have 5% of these In cats it could mean: lymphosarcoma, hyperthyroidism, Diabetes Mellitus In dogs: Ingestion of onions, ingestion of toxic drugs, ingestion of acetaminophine

Heinz Bodies

Platelets are also known as

thrombocytes

Platelets are derived from

megakaryocytes in bone marrow

4 clotting functions of platelets

1. Maintain vascular integrity (seals off minor deficiencies) 2. Help arrest bleeding (form a platelet plug) 3. Contribute to fibrin formation (forms a scab) 4. Promote vascular healing through PDGF

PDGF

Platelet derived growth factor

What is PDGF

Mitogenic substance that causes endothelial proliferation

Small, round to oval, light blue Anucleated with pink to purple cytoplasmic granules Macroplatelets can occur

Canine platelets

Small, round to oval, light blue Anucleated with pink/purple cytoplasmic granules Tend to clump easily at feathered edge

Feline platelets

``` Small, round to oval very light blue Anucleated Indistinct cytoplasmic granules Don't stain intensely ```

Equine platelets

Small, round to oval, light blue Anucleated with pink/purple cytoplasmic granules Higher tendency to clump

Bovine platelets

VERY small Round to oval shape, light blue Anucleated with pink/purple cytoplasmic granules

Llama platelets

Average platelet count per HPF

7-21

HPF

high power field

Manual platelet counts utilize

unopette system and hemocytometer

Impendance based platelet counts utilize

clinical blood machines

Flow cytometry based platelet counts utilize

Principles of light scattering

If platelet clumps are observed, you should assume

the animal has an adequate number of platelets

Normal canine platelet values

200-500,000/microliters

Normal feline platelet values

300-800,000/microliter

Increase in thrombocytes | Caused by primary bone marrow disorders, secondary to dz, or physiological issues

Thrombocytosis

Decrease in platelets | Caused by abnormal platelet production, accelerated platelet removal, and abnormal distribution

Thrombocytopenia

3 Reasons pts are anemic

1. Increase in RBC destruction (auto-immune dz) 2. Hemorrhage/blood loss 3. Decrease in production in marrow

Indicates the body is responding to the decreased level of RBCs in the body Typically good, except in horses

Regenerative anemia

Indicates the body is not responding to the decreased levels of RBCs in the body Typically bad

Nonregenerative anemia

Signs of anemia

1. Pale MMs 2. Pt. is weak or lethargic 3. RR and HR increases 4. Pt. collapse

Young, anucleated RBCs released in blood in response to anemia

Reticulocytes

Increase in reticulocytes

Reticulocytosis

Normal CRP for dogs

45%

Normal CRP for cats

35%

ARC =

retic %/100 x RBC ct

CRP =

retic % x ptPCV/Normal PCV

RPI =

CRP/lifespan

More granules

Aggregates

Less granules

Punctate

_____ platelets turn into ________ platelets

aggregate, punctate

How long does it take for aggregate platelet to turn to punctate?

12-24 hrs

Punctate platelets can float in blood for

7-10 days

Reasons for nonregenerative anemia

1. chronic renal dz 2. hypothyroidism 3. hypoadrenocorticism

Increased number of nRBCs

Erythroblastosis

3 reasons for erythroblastosis in non anemic pts

1. Bone marrow injury 2. Lead poisoning 3. abnormal splenic function

Final Flashcards

(206 cards)