Final Flashcards

Question

Describe Fraley et al. (2013) study on attachment from infancy to adulthood

Answer 1

* Do caregiving experiences in childhood predict adult attachment style? * People tend to not have great memories from their childhood or have biases so the best kind of data are longitudinal studies * Method: Longitudinal study of 707 participants from childhood to age 18 (adulthood) * Assessed quality of caregiving experiences at various points in childhood: * Maternal sensitivity * Maternal depression * Father’s absence * Assessed adult attachment style at age 18 * Results: Less supportive parenting, family instability, and lower quality friendships in childhood/adolescence predicted attachment insecurity in adulthood * Avoidance at age 18 predicted by: * Lower maternal sensitivity (less attentive to the child) (-0.16) * Father’s consistent and inconsistent absence (0.17) * Lower quality friendships (-0.13) * Anxiety at age 18 predicted by: * Higher maternal depression (0.10) * Lower quality friendships (-0.11) * People that were reporting secure attachment at age 18 were more likely to report good quality friendships throughout their childhood * Evidence that there’s an association between childhood caregiving experiences and attachment in adulthood * The size of effect of friendship experiences is similar to the size of the effect of caregiving experiences * Not suggesting that parenting experiences are more important the way attachment theory would

Answer 2

* Across longitudinal studies, average correlation of 0.15 between childhood caregiving experiences and adult attachment style (small effect) * Suggests that the effect is small and that some people exhibit inconsistent/incongruent patterns: * Positive early caregiving but insecure attachment in adulthood * Negative early caregiving but secure attachment in adulthood * Suggests foundations are important, but not fate/destiny * We are shaped by early caregiving experiences, but these foundations are not fate * There are other experiences at play * Friendships in childhood are just as important as experiences with caregivers * Provide opportunities for internal working models to be tested and to have expectations either reinforced or disconfirmed * First time children can have relationships outside of their family and test their internal working models

Answer 3

* Internal working models contribute to the stability of attachment styles over time * Confirmation bias: people are likely to interpret ambiguous social information in ways that are consistent with their internal working model * Selection effect: people tend to select partners or close friends that are consistent with their internal working models * Ex: Partner selection study

Answer 4

* Method: Assessed people’s attachment style at 2 time points a few weeks apart * Results: * At Time 2, 70% of people classified with same attachment style as Time 1 * BUT 30% of people classified with a different attachment style at T2 * Suggests that attachment is less stable than would be theoretically predicted * Who is changing? * % of People with Different Attachment at Time 2: * Secure: 12% * Avoidant: 33% * Anxious: 55%

Answer 5

* Method: Longitudinal study of about 4000 people (between 6-40 months) * At multiple time points, reported on: * Life events experienced since last time point * Attachment avoidance and anxiety * Results: many life events lead to temporary changes in attachment security * Events associated with decreased attachment security: * Getting into an argument with partner * Being physically apart from partner * Being sick * Events associated with increased attachment security: * Dating someone new * Partner did something special for the person * Work promotion * Going on vacation * Note: maybe it's something about being in a better mood? * How enduring are these changes? * In general, people revert back to their typical level of attachment security overtime (reflects operation of stable internal working models) * People's attachment tends to get more secure overtime * BUT, ~25% of events led to a more enduring change in attachment * Events like a breakup (increase in attachment insecurity), an engagement (decrease in attachment insecurity), a pregnancy (decrease in attachment insecurity), close one passing away (increase in attachment insecurity), starting school (increase in attachment insecurity) * Attachment can change in a more enduring way if the life event is big and important enough * Internal working models can also be altered by new experiences

Answer 6

1) Age * People become less anxiously attached as they get older * Some people become more and some less avoidant as they get older * Less clear results for avoidance 2) Wanting to become more securely attached is associated with increases in attachment security for a 4-month period 3) Fostering more secure mental models * Anxiously attached: Foster a secure model of self by learning to rely on others less for validation and learning to feel capable and valued in personal domains * Avoidantly attached: Foster a secure model of others by challenging self to depend on others and self-disclose more 4) Psychotherapy is associated with increased attachment security

Answer 7

* Do we have the same attachment style across relationships? * Method: * Listed 10 most impactful relationships * Rated attachment style in each specific relationship * Assessed general attachment style (how you are in relationships generally) * Everyone has relationships characterized by each of the 3 attachment styles (no zeros) * Regardless of general attachment style, the majority of a person’s relationships are secure * General attachment style is related to the prevalence of your relationships fitting a specific attachment style relative to other people * People who show a general secure attachment style have more secure relationships than the avoidant or anxiously attached people do * People who show a general avoidant attachment style have more avoidant relationships than the securely or anxiously attached people do * People who show a general anxious attachment style have more anxiously attached relationships than the securely or avoidantly attached people do

Answer 8

* Everybody has relationships that are characterized by all 3 attachment styles * Contributes to within person fluctuations in attachment style * Suggests that these fluctuations in attachment style may be a function of which attachment model is cognitively accessible at a given moment (different relationship partners or events prime different attachment styles)

Answer 9

* Does priming a specific attachment model affect coping with stress? * Method: Recruited female students * Experimental manipulation: * Secure relationship: Primed warm/supportive relationship * Insecure relationship: Primed critical/judgmental relationship * Control: No prime * Then imagine themselves with unplanned pregnancy * Assessed: 1) Coping strategy 2) General attachment style * Results: * People primed with warm/supportive relationship were more likely to seek emotional support than control group (they were behaving as if they were securely attached) * People primed with critical/judgmental relationship were less likely to engage in growth- oriented coping (emphasizing learning from challenges) than control group * Coping responses unrelated to general attachment style * Shows that attachment styles can be primed and influence behaviour in theoretically consistent ways

Answer 10

* Stability of attachment is moderated by relationship length * Attachment style is more stable in longer relationships (have had lots of opportunities to develop habits) * More entrenched patterns * Implies that people will have more stable attachment styles with their parents and other people they’ve know for a long time than with romantic partners or newer friends

Answer 11

1) Chronic/general attachment style * Influenced by caregiver experiences * Past important relationships, like childhood friendships * Some major life events * Age 2) State level of attachment * Current and recent life events * Most recent interaction with an attachment figure (priming) * Relationship length

Answer 12

* Personal identities: self-aspects that make a person unique * Social identities: self-aspects based on group membership * The more a person values a group, the more strongly they identify with it * Some of these can be group identities that we don't choose (ex: race) * Some of these social identities we do choose (ex: the major you choose)

Answer 13

* 3-step process 1) Social categorization: people automatically categorize themselves and others into social groups (ex: race, ethnicity, gender) 2) Social identification: once people categorize themselves as part of a group, they adopt the identity of that group * Self-stereotyping: a person adopts the values and norms of the group * Creates an emotional bond with other in-group members 3) Social comparison: people make comparisons between groups and do so in a way that tends to be favourable to their in-group * In-group favouritism and outgroup bias

Answer 14

* Previously, the main way group favouritism was explained was from a group competition for resources * Ps are randomly and anonymously assigned to 1 of 2 groups on the basis of trivial criteria (ex: coin toss, preference for paintings) * In a subsequent resource allocation task, Ps tend to allocate more resources to in-group members than out-group members * Suggests that: * People readily identify with a social group * Group categorization, even if based on meaningless criteria, tends to trigger in-group favouritism

Answer 15

* The extent to which personal vs. social identities are salient depends on the social context * Consistent with idea of working self-concept * Personal identity is more salient when interacting with in-group members (distinctiveness theory) * Social identity/in-group identity is more salient when interacting with out-group members, especially in an inter-group context * Ex: McGill identity might be highlighted when interacting with a group of Concordia students * Leads people to think and behave in ways that are consistent with the norms of their in-group

Answer 16

* People tend to perceive out-group members as more similar to each other and in-group members as more diverse * Explained by the context shifts in the salience of people’s identities * People tend to behave more similarly to their in-group in intergroup contexts * The other group perceives this similarity in behaviour and concludes that the rival group members are all similar to each other * There might be some prejudice at play * More likely to interact with in-group members than out-group members * Intergroup context -> Salient ingroup identity -> Behaviour more consistent with in-group norms -> Outgroup perceives in-group members as highly similar

Answer 17

1) Evolutionary perspective: * In our evolutionary past, humans were in competition for resources so it was useful to form groups to increase safety and secure resources * Implies that in-group favouritism is a result of competition between groups for resources 2) Self-enhancement * Individuals gain personal self-esteem from associating with a successful/positive group * Leads to: * Elevating the in-group over the out-group by focusing on positive qualities and achievements of the in-group * Devalue positive qualities and achievements of an out-group 3) Uncertainty reduction * Individuals seek to gain certainty about themselves and the world * We don't like uncertainty * Identifying with a group accomplishes this goal by prescribing group norms and offering a framework for how one should be and how to understand others

Answer 18

* Method: Field study on several American university campuses * Recorded what clothing students were wearing the Monday after a big football match played against a rival university * Asked students’ opinion about their team’s performance * Results: * Students were more likely to wear clothing associated with their university if their university team won the football match * More likely to use first person pronouns (“we”) if the team won and more likely to use third person pronouns (“they”) if the team lost * To maintain strong self-esteem, people tend to closely associate themselves with a group when it is successful and establish distance from a group when it fails

Answer 19

* Self-enhancement will generally motivate people to maintain/gain status for their group * Higher-status group members are motivated to maintain status quo * Lower-status group members are motivated to improve their status * How they accomplish this depends on the permeability of group boundaries (to what extent it's possible to change groups) * The way we're going to approach this will depend on whether we're already part of groups that have more privilege/status or less privilege/status

Answer 20

* Impermeability of group boundaries (can't change groups - ex: race) results in strong identification with the group 1) Social creativity: Lower-status group members will modify their perception of their in-group’s standing * Adopt dimensions of comparison that emphasize the positivity of the in-group * Ex: placing value on kindness and humor rather than money and power * Downward comparison with a different out-group in order to make the current standing of the in-group appear more positive 2) Social competition: Lower-status group members band together and advocate for reducing the status difference between groups * Most forms of activism would be under this umbrella (ex: civil rights movement in the 60s)

Answer 21

* Individual mobility: Lower-status group members seek to individually transfer into the higher-status group (can change groups) * Individual will focus more on their personal identity and accomplishments and distance themselves from their group membership * Ex: the American dream -> idea that regardless of what SES or race or background you're born into, you can make a better life for yourself by working hard, pursuing an education, etc.

Answer 22

* Token: When a high-status group takes in an individual member from a lower-status group * Being a token leads to heightened awareness of how one is different from the group they’ve been accepted into * Consistent with distinctiveness theory * Creates added performance pressure and can have cognitive consequences

Answer 23

* How does being a token influence cognitive processing? * Era when women started to enter the workforce in much larger numbers than they had before * Method: * Ps led to believe that they were sharing their opinions on everyday topics with 3 other students via video (actually videotaped confederates) * Experimental manipulation: * Token: other students are all of a different gender than the participant * Non-token: other students are all the same gender as the participant * Tested memory for this interaction * Received a list of opinions and had to identify whose opinion belonged to whom * People in either group were much more likely to remember what they themselves had said than what others had said * Tokens had poorer memory for the interaction than non-tokens * Remembered fewer of the opinions that they had expressed and fewer of the opinions that others had expressed * Being a token had interfered with their cognitive processing * Impairments in memory are purely a result of awareness of being a token

Answer 24

* Being a token may shift attention to self-presentation concerns and away from the task at hand leading to disrupted cognitive processing * Impairments to cognitive processing shown in the absence of differential treatment * Implications for organizations: increasing the number of minority members in an organization should reduce their self-consciousness, decrease pressure, and improve cognitive processing

Answer 25

* Prototype: in-group’s central characteristics, values, and norms for behaviour * Prototypical members: people that are most representative of the in-group prototype (ex: Regina from Mean Girls) * Peripheral members: less typical of the in-group (ex: Katie from Mean Girls)

Answer 26

* Being a peripheral member of an important group leads to experiencing self-uncertainty * Motivates greater conformity to in-group norms in order to become more prototypical and gain greater self-certainty * Peripheral -> Self-uncertainty -> Greater in-group identification -> Behaviours consistent with in-group prototype

Answer 27

* Does feeling peripheral in a group increase self-uncertainty? * Method: Recruited American participants * Completed a bogus test assessing artistic vs scientific personality * Experimental manipulation: * Peripheral: Ps score is closer to the French average than American average * Ps are led to believe that they're a peripheral American * Prototypical: Ps score is closer to the American average than French average * Ps are led to believe that they're a prototypical American * Measured self-uncertainty with the SCC scale * Findings: * Peripheral Ps experienced more self-uncertainty than prototypical participants * This should motivate them to identify more with their in-group and behave in a more prototypical way * Then another experimental manipulation: * Uncertainty: “Write about 3 aspects that make you feel the most uncertain about yourself and your future” * Certainty: “Write about 3 aspects that make you feel the most certain about yourself and your future” * Completed a personality test and all students got the same personality feedback * Prototypical: Profile is similar to other students’ at your university * Peripheral: Profile is more similar to students at a rival university * Evaluated essays about students’ views of their university * How much do they prefer a positive essay over a negative essay? * Looking at how much in-group favouritism/bias they showed * For peripheral participants, high self-uncertainty led to more in-group bias, but self-certainty did not * For prototypical participants, self-uncertainty did not affect in-group bias

Answer 28

* Sometimes peripheral members may identify with an important in-group more strongly than more prototypical members * As an attempt to gain self-certainty * This reasoning has been used to explain why extreme groups and behaviour are attractive to some people * Extremist groups provide a certain, very clear, and prescriptive direction for the self

Answer 29

* Importance of the group * Social context * Status and permeability of group boundaries * Prototypicality

Answer 30

* From the German “einfuhlung” = feeling into * “An affective response more appropriate to someone else’s situation than to one’s own” * “The drive to identify another person’s emotions and thoughts, and to respond to these with an appropriate emotion” * Empathy is basically the only way that we can come closest to imagining and experiencing what it's like to be someone else * The world of empathy research is filled with debates * One debate is that we have no clear way of defining empathy

Answer 31

- Empathy is made up of 3 components 1) Cognitive Empathy - Empathic accuracy - Mentalizing - Perspective-taking 2) Affective Empathy - Emotion contagion - Emotion sharing - Personal distress 3) Prosocial Motivation - Empathic concern - Helping behaviour - Cognitive empathy and affective empathy affect each other - Cognitive empathy and affective empathy both affect prosocial motivation but prosocial motivation doesn't affect them

Answer 32

* Sharing another person’s emotional state/experience * Can be negative or positive emotional state * Ex: can empathize with someone's guilt, anger, anxiety * Ex: can empathize with someone's happiness * Common synonym for affective empathy: emotion contagion * Automatic process that just happens

Answer 33

The spontaneous spread of emotions from one person to another

Answer 34

* Most commonly assessed via self-report * Ex: The Basic Empathy Scale * One of the most commonly used self-report * “After being with a friend who is sad about something, I usually feel sad.” * “I get frightened when I watch the characters in a good scary movie.” * “I often get swept up in my friend’s feelings.” * Limitations: * Socially desirable to report higher empathy * Empathy is generally seen as a positive thing

Answer 35

* Evidence of affective empathy being automatic * Reflexive mirroring another person’s behaviour: * Facial expressions * Body posture * Ex: contagious yawning * Emerges in infancy and apparent throughout life * Present within the first year of life (usually emerges within 9 months old) * In humans, mimicry contributes to emotion contagion by eliciting the corresponding emotions associated with the mimicked behaviour * Basically every single animal out there shows spontaneous mimicry of at least an animal of the same species * Contagious yawning happens between animals and humans

Answer 36

* Method: Ps watched funny cartoons while holding a pen in their mouth * Manipulation: * Teeth condition: Ps held a pen in their teeth without letting their lips touch it, which facilitates/engages the muscles associated with smiling * Lips condition: Ps held a pen in their mouth making sure that their lips touched it, which inhibits the muscles associated with smiling (interferes with smiling) * Rated level of amusement while watching cartoons * Results: Ps in the teeth condition found the cartoons funnier * Providing evidence that the kind of facial expressions that we're making will influence how we feel

Answer 37

* Method: Ps watched emotional video clips pre and post cosmetic procedure * Botox (partial facial muscle paralysis) * Restylane (no facial paralysis) -> Restylane is also a cosmetic procedure (fillers) but no muscle paralyzing * Self-reported emotional intensity * Results: Botox group reported decreased emotional intensity, but only to mildly positive videos * Partially supports the idea that facial expressions influence emotions

Answer 38

* The same neural systems are activated when we experience an affective state as when we simply observe another person experiencing that same affective state * Shown for motor intentions, physical, and disgust

Answer 39

* To understand others’ “minds”, we use our own motor, neural, and mental processes as a model to “simulate” the experiences of others * Low-level/bottom-up simulation: automatic and rapid * Mimicry * Neural resonance * Perception of the target's expressions -> shared neural activation -> automatic mimicry -> emotional contagion -> understand the emotions of another * High-level/top-down: controlled, slow * Mentally putting oneself in someone else’s situation

Answer 40

* Neal & Chartrand (2011) and Oberman et al. (2007) * Botox impaired recognition of positive and negative emotional facial expressions, compared to control (Restylane) group * Blocking facial muscle mimicry by biting on a pen, compared to controls of gum, lip, rest, impaired recognition of emotional expressions, specifically happiness and disgust -> good evidence for low-level simulation * Why not fear and sadness? * Because a lot of the way we convey sadness or fear is in our eyebrow region and having a pen in the mouth won't impair our eyebrow movement

Answer 41

* Understanding another person’s mental/emotional state * Synonyms: Theory of mind, Mentalizing, Empathic accuracy * Can be accomplished via: * Emotion contagion (low-level simulation) * Perspective-taking (higher order simulation)

Answer 42

Explicitly imagining oneself in another person’s situation

Answer 43

* In children, assessed using false-belief tasks * Ex: Sally-Ann Task * A child that's able to accurately understand what's going on in Sally's mind will say Sally's going to look in the basket because they know she's unaware of it being in the box * Emerges around age 4 * Across countries, most 3 yr olds fail (14% pass rate) and most 5 year olds pass (85%) false belief tasks * Somewhere between 3 and 5, kids develop this ability

Answer 44

* Self-report: * Ex: The Basic Empathy Scale * “I can often understand how people feel even before they tell me.” * “I can usually work out when my friends are scared.” * Limitations: * Social desirability issues * How do we know they’re accurate? * Behavioural measures assessing empathic accuracy: * Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test * Problems with RMET task: * Too easy (already given response options to choose from which isn't accessible in real-life) * Static when in real-life emotions evolve over time * Empathic accuracy task solves these 2 issues

Answer 45

- Ps see a picture of just a person's eyes and has to pick their emotional state from a list of 4 different emotional states - It was only last year that a more racially diverse version was developed

Answer 46

* Target: * Target is filmed while talking about an emotional event * Watch video and continuously rate how they were feeling while they were talking * Have an overtime measure of how a person's affect changed while they were talking about this event * Perceiver: * Watches target’s video and continuously rates how they think the target was feeling * Empathic accuracy = time-series correlation between the target’s emotions and the perceiver’s inference of the target’s emotions * Low Accuracy: r = .22 * High Accuracy: r = .75

Answer 47

* Empathic accuracy has been associated with a variety of positive relationship outcomes: * Targets feeling understood * Better support provision * Greater romantic relationship satisfaction * Better quality friendships

Answer 48

* Informs more accurate emotion sharing * You share the correct emotion * High-level simulation

Answer 49

* Provides information * You’re feeling what the target is feeling which helps you understand their experience * Low-level simulation

Answer 50

* There is more variability in target’s ability to accurately express themselves than in perceiver’s ability to accurately “read” targets’ emotions * The target needs to be sufficiently expressive for individual differences in empathy between perceivers to emerge * More likely that the target is making a poor job at expressing what's going on with them than is the perceiver just inaccurate in their perception

Answer 51

1) Trait affective empathy * Self-reported affective empathy is positively correlated with empathic accuracy, but only when for expressive targets 2) Alexithymia * Difficulties describing and recognizing emotions within oneself * Associated with lower cognitive and affective empathy 3) Emotion regulation skills * Perspective-taking is more accurate when emotional arousal is modulated rather than overwhelming * Associated with increased personal distress when confronted with another’s arousal

Answer 52

* Women consistently self-report higher affective and cognitive empathy * Men self-reporting less cognitive empathy * True difference or social desirability? * On behavioural measures, women tend to show higher affective empathy but there are no gender differences on cognitive empathy * Possible explanations: * Biologically based * Socialization of gender roles

Answer 53

1) Knowledge of the target * More emotion sharing and empathic accuracy for close others * Easier to accurately simulate what a person is feeling when we are familiar with them 2) Similarity to the target * More emotion sharing and empathic accuracy for in-group vs. out-group members * More likely to be correct because they're most similar to us * Use of self as a model to simulate others’ experience is more likely to be accurate when the target is similar to us 3) Motivation to empathize * Less empathy when it's perceived as costly (ex: cognitive effort, experiencing distress) -> not necessarily consciously thinking about this * More empathy when it's perceived as beneficial to the perceiver (socially rewarding)

Answer 54

Empathic concern

Answer 55

* An other-oriented response inducing motivation to help * Synonyms: sympathy, compassion * Generally considered the desired outcome of empathy * Help either via emotional support (ex: encouragement, validation) or instrumental support (ex: practical, tangible support)

Answer 56

* Empathic concern: an other-oriented response inducing motivation to help * Ex: “I often have tender, concerned feelings for people less fortunate than me” * Personal distress: self-focused, aversive reaction, often leading to withdrawing from the situation to alleviate one’s own discomfort * Form of emotion contagion * Sometimes empathy doesn't lead to empathic concern but instead leads to personal distress * Ex: “When I see someone who badly needs help in an emergency, I go to pieces”

Answer 57

* Psychological overlap in the mental representation between the self and other * Common in close relationships * The outcome/basis of empathy * BUT, too much seems to be problematic * High self-other merging is associated with personal distress

Answer 58

* Method: “Katie Banks” Paradigm * “Radio broadcast” about Katie Banks - plea for financial help from “Katie” * Katie states her parents just got into a car accident, she has to take care of her two siblings but has no money and is currently a McGill student * Participants self-report: * Empathic concern: To what extent did you feel compassionate, sympathetic, moved, warm, soft-hearted, tender? * Personal distress: To what extent did you feel worried, alarmed, grieved, troubled, distressed, perturbed, upset, disturbed? * Self-other merging with Katie * Self-concept clarity * Given a small bonus payment and can choose how much to donate to Katie * Findings (mediation analyses): * Lower SCC was associated with less empathic concern which in turn was associated with less money donated to Katie * Lower SCC was associated with more personal distress which was associated with less money donated to Katie * Lower SCC was associated with more self-other merging which in turn was associated with more personal distress

Answer 59

* Empathic concern, resulting from empathy, motivate us to help others in distress * Although empathy involves some level of “self-other merging”, maintaining a clear distinction between the “self” and “other” is important for mature empathic responding * Having a clear sense of self may help with maintaining adequate self-other distinction in empathy

Answer 60

* What am I helping with? * More effective emotional support or instrumental help

Answer 61

* Why should I help? * Emotion sharing often triggers empathic concern * Feeling emotionally compelled to help the other person

Answer 62

* These are separate components * Often evidence that these are separate comes from psychiatric conditions where some are due more to struggles with cognitive empathy or due more to struggles with empathy * Many mental health disorders linked to difficulties in either affective or cognitive empathy, or both * Psychopathy often conceptualized as a deficit in affective empathy, although not always related to changes in cognitive empathy * Autism Spectrum Disorder often linked to difficulties with cognitive empathy, but not always related to changes in affective empathy * Individuals with moderate-to-severe presentations of ASD often struggle with false belief tasks

Answer 63

* Will understand partner’s emotional reaction, but not feel it themselves * More likely to analyze feelings, rather than be emotionally connected with it * Struggle to provide emotional support * Might come off as a bit detached or cold * Lacking warmth * Lacking emotional feeling/component to it

Answer 64

* Could become overwhelmed with personal distress leading to withdrawing * Person is really sharing in the emotion of sadness * Could misread partner’s emotional reaction (missing the mark) * Might not fully understand what's going on

Answer 65

* The need to belong * Identification with groups * Different cultures create different selves * Looking-glass self * Self-presentation * Authenticity when behaving in socially desirable ways * Sociometer theory

Answer 66

* Working self-concept: 1) Situational activation 2) Distinctiveness and relevance to the situation * Salience of personal vs. group identity depends on context * Cultural frame switching * Multiple attachment styles * Automatic activation of relational goals * Adjusting self-presentation to suit our audience

Answer 67

* To organize the self-system, we strive for unity in the self: 1) Continuity overtime, consistency, predictability 2) Work-in-progress, that’s never fully complete * Self-presentations (vital task of creating a good reputation) * Narrative identity * Self-verification motive * Self-regulation * Self-concept clarity

Answer 68

* Positive illusions about the self (cognitive biases sustain these illusions) * Most of the time not an all out falsehood, more likely a best-case version of us * Why self-deceive? 1) Adaptive for mental health 2) Believing good things about ourselves helps us move closer to this desired reputation and thus gain social approval

Final Flashcards

(92 cards)