final

Question 1

how did central america go from independent nations to ‘banana republics’?

Answer 1

• economic imperialism 1870s-1930s: United Fruit Company got control over economies and governments
• revolutionary responses (1920s-1990s): nationalist and socialist governments
• human cost of cold war politics: central america became a cold war battleground with interventions and meddling

Question 2

what was the guetemalan genocide

Answer 2

• against indigenous communities that make up about half of guetemala’s population
• they faced challenges during the cold war, rebel movements put indigenous civilians in the conflicts centre and culminated in the state sponsored genocide in the Maya highlands in the 1980s

since, Rigoberta Menchu has upped indigenous struggle winning a 1992 nobel peace prize and bringing international attention to guetemala

Question 3

what is an overview of el salvador’s history?

Answer 3

• dictatorial era (1931-1980s): military rule serving small number of families
• civil war era (1979-1992): left wing insurgency vs US backed military
• rise of gang culture (1980s-2013): gangs fill void left by social instability
• confronting gang power (2019-present): Bukele’s administration with mass incarceration

Question 4

what is an overview of Nicaragua’s history?

Answer 4

• sandinista revolution (1979): socialist movement that overthrew US backed dictatorship
• contra war and US intervention (1980s): US funded counter-revolutionaries to destabilise sandinista government causing severed loss of life
• return to democracy (1990): end of sandinista rule with Ortegs toward neoliberal economic policies
• Ortega returns to power (2006-present): he is re-elected promising social programmes but changes constitution to indefinite re-election
• curret dictatorship (2020s): systematic suppression of dissent with imprisonment of political opponents and activists

Question 5

history of Costa Rica

a success story?

Answer 5

• abolishment of the military (1949): funding relocated to education, healthcare and social programmes
• strong democratic institutions
• investment in education and healthcare
• environmental leadership
• economic diversification to include tech, tourism etc.

Question 6

what is the history of the latin american debt crisis?

Answer 6

• 19th century: pains from independence, massive debts etc.
• 1910-1959: nationalisation/revolution process, attempt to regain control of the primary sector
• 1960s and 70s: industrialisation, borrowed money from international creditory, oil crisis and rampant corruption hits
• 1975-1982: external debt balloons under authoritarian right wing governments, debt to commercial banks skyrockets

Question 7

how did the 1990s see the triumph of neoliberalism in latin america

Answer 7

• end of the cold war opened up new ideologies
• washington consensus brought reform package for developing countries
• shift from ISIs to export led industrialisation
• GDP rises in many countries
• emerging middle class
• authoritarian regimes replaced by democracy
• debt reduction

Question 8

what issues did neoliberalism present from the 1990s?

Answer 8

• economic inequality: failure of trickle down economics causing persistent poverty
• monetary turbulences: unstable currencies cause persistent risk of financial default
• ecological crisis: massive loss of resources and natural habitats
• worsening social services: loss of basic services like schooling and health
• global financial crash 2008 took a toll in these export economies

Question 9

what does Peru’s neoliberal history look like?

Answer 9

• Velasco era 19678-75: left wing military government with socialist reforms (middle path)
• economic crisis and transition (1975-1990): failed experiment and shaky return to democracy but rising insurgent movement
• fujimori decade (1990-2000): japanese descent implemented economic programme that brought stability but removed democracy
• democratic reconstruction (2016-now): more corruption, economic growth but inequality

Question 10

what is Mexico’s history since 2000?

Answer 10

• PAN era (2000-2012): PRI dominance ended, first peaceful democratic transition
• PRI return (2012-2018): more corruption
• MORENA (2018-present): left party with nationalist-populist model

evolution from one party to multi-party democracy
ongoing challenges with corruption

Question 11

what has venezuela’s history since the 1990s been?

Answer 11

• crisis of traditional system (1990s): economic instability and corruption with social inequality
• chavismo era (1999-2013): Chavez elected President, socialist policies and nationalisation
• post-chavez period (2013-now): Maduro takes presidency, economic crisis, mass emigration of venezuelans

one of the region’s oldest democracies to authoritarian system

Question 12

what has the development of the war on drugs been in latin america

Answer 12

• 1971 Nixon declares drug abuse ‘public enemy number one’
• 1980s-90s: escalation under Reagan and Bush with increased militarisation
• 2000s-now: evolving strategies shifting towards public health approaches

Trump?

Question 13

what have the key policies been in the war on drugs?

Answer 13

• increased incarceration: think El Salvador
• military aid and intervention: funding and training for security forces in various places

Question 14

what has been the impact of the war on drugs on latin america

Answer 14

• violence and instability: rise of powerful cartels
• human rights concerns: extrajudicial killings and corruption
• economic and social consequences: disruption of local economies, migration crises, environmental damage

Question 15

what have been key developments in women and LGBTQ movements

Answer 15

• early 2000s activism expands inspired by global human rights movements
• 2010s mass mobilisations like ni una menos against femicide
• 2020s legal victories such as abortion legalisation
• l

Question 16

what key developments have there been in environmental activism?

Answer 16

• 1970s-80s early resistance from indigenous communities
• 1990s-200s growth of environmental NGOs and legal reforms
• 2010s-present: rise of grassroot movements, climate justice activism
• l

Question 17

what bourbon reforms were implemented after the war of spanish succession?

Answer 17

main aim was to restore spanish hegemony through modernisation of economy, centralisation of adminstration, increase of population and broadening tax base

Question 18

what were the geographic limitations of bourbon reform?

Answer 18

• spain’s natural geography
• rugged mountains, arid landscape, lack of navigable rivers made transportatino and communication within the empire difficult

Question 19

what were structural limitations to bourbon reforms?

Answer 19

• population density pretty low limiting economic activity
• nobles resisted centralisation attempts
• church property was extensive and untaxed

Question 20

how did uneven regional development limit bourbon reform

Answer 20

• three distinct economic networks, mediterranean network, North Atlantic regional network and regional networks of the center
• north atlantic region was less integrated with the rest of spain
• central regions remained stagnant

Question 21

what was the political crisis of the Spanish monarchy under Charles IV?

Answer 21

• the first bourbon monarchs used enlightened absolutism to implement reforms but by the time Charles IV came to power in 1788 there was a full political crisis
• context of French revolution, threat of Napoleon
• increasing resentment of Spanish control in Latin America
• significant power was given to the minister Godoy who was highly unpopular and eroded public support

Question 22

what were the consequences of the battle of trafalgar for Spain?

Answer 22

• 27 british ships defeated 33 french and spanish ships
• the french and spanish lost 22 ships and the brits lost none because of Nelson
• this led spanish possessions in America exposed and a political crisis
• l

Question 23

what was Napoleon’s influence on spain?

Answer 23

• Godoy had close ties with him
• treaty of fontainebleau 1807 allowed french troops to march through spain to invade portugal

Question 24

what was the revolt of aranjuez?

1808

Answer 24

• Charles IV’s son Ferdinand VIII positioned himself as an alternative to his father
• they attacked Godoy’s residence, captured him and imprisoned
• Charles IV abdicates in favour of his son

Question 25

what was the Napoleonic invasion of Spain? ## Footnote 1808

Answer 25

- after Ferdinand took power Napoleon summoned both father and son to court and coerced them to abdicate their claims - Napoleon installed his brother Joseph Bonapoarte as king of spain - this caused widespread resistance - this led to the spanish war of independence as forces rose up against french occupation

Question 26

what was the start of Spain's constitutional history

Answer 26

- the cortes de cadiz and the constitution of 1812 - influenced by liberalism, constitutional monarchy - but Ferdinand VII returned in 1814 and absolutism was restored - after this point Spain definitively lost its superpower status in europe

Question 27

what is the cortes de cadiz? ## Footnote 1810-1812

Answer 27

- considered the start of modern history of Spain - the first representative assembly with representatives from the peninsular and overseas territories - created in the power vacuum after Napoleon's departure

Question 28

what were the main principles of the cortes constitution

Answer 28

- nationhood, not a collection of kingdoms - sovereignty with the people - constitutionalism - citizenship to free people (not slaves though) - representation for all regions - religious reforms - rejection of absolutism

Question 29

what was the absolutist restoration? ## Footnote 1814-1820

Answer 29

- Ferdinand VII returned to Spain and alienated liberals who had fought against the French - he revoked the constitution and restored absolutism - sought to claim american territories by force - jailed and exiled liberal supporters

Question 30

what was the liberal 'trienio'? ## Footnote 1820-1823

Answer 30

- a three year period that saw Rafael del Riego's 1820 uprising - he led troops in a a pronunciamiento, a military rebellion aiming to force policy change without seizing power - there was a liberal victory and Ferdinand was forced to restore the 1812 constitution - but an army mobilised by the French invaded Spain in 1823 to restore absolutism - Riego was executed

Question 31

what was the SECOND return to absolutism? ## Footnote 1823-1833

Answer 31

- Ferdinand is now BACK in command and wants to restore the absolutist monarchy but is forced to adopt some liberal policies - but he has no male heir so modifies salic law to allow daughter to inherit - but traditionalists preferred his brother - this caused the first Carlist War between Isabeline liberals and Carlist traditionalists ## Footnote there was a liberal victory though Carlism persisted

Question 32

how was the liberal state constructed in Spain ## Footnote 1839-1868

Answer 32

- Isabel II crowned 1844 - government alternated between moderates and progressives - they achieved a number of successes like a constitutional monarchy, parliamentary representation, reduced church and noble privileges etc. ## Footnote Carlist ideas persisted despite liberal victory

Question 33

how did the Spanish liberal state face a crisis?

Answer 33

- there were tensions between moderates and progressives that led to its eventual demise - Isabella favoured moderates and wasn't neutral - pronunciamientos became common - there was limited representation with neither supporting full democracy - Isabella herself was a controversial figure with a scandalous private life and an antiliberal

Question 34

what was the democratic sexenio? ## Footnote 1868-1874

Answer 34

- a six year period of democratic experimentation after Isabella II - by the 60s there were the moderates, progressives and democrats - progressive and democrats formed a coalition demanding liberalism, democratic monarchy etc. - the democratic monarchy was from 1868-1873 and saw the continuance of the monarchy with progressive reforms - but it fell after the new king lacked popular support SO CONFUSING - was replaced by the first spanish republic 1873-4 that fell due to parliamentary weakness

Question 35

what was the Spanish cantonal revolution?

Answer 35

- radical republicans rejected the centralisation in Madrid and established cantons across southern spain - more than a dozen declared independence, some estbalishing their own currency and navy like Cartagena's - they were shaped by Proudhon's anarchist ideas of a decentralised government (federalism from below) - direct democracy at a local level, workers rights and local autonomy ## Footnote ultimately suppressed by republican military forces but represented one of the most ambitious attempts at anarchist-federalist principles in practice

Question 36

after the first republic collapsed, how did the second liberal state come into being?

Answer 36

- the main political forces of spain were put into two main parties - the conservative party and the liberal party - based on the turno pacifico (peaceful and ordered alternation of power between the two) - there were of course (because it was not a republic) constitutional monarchs

Question 37

how did basque nationalism emerge?

Answer 37

- basque nationalism rooted in the carlists wars - the triumph of the liberal state led to the military occupaiton of the basque provinces as they had supported the carlists - basque specific status was ended in 1876 - in 1895 the basque nationalist party was founded

Question 38

how did catalan nationalism emerge?

Answer 38

- linked to the cultural movement known as the Renaixenca (rebirth/renaissance), recovery of the catalan language and literature, influenced by volkgeist - linked very much to the nationalist sentiment in europe in the 19th century - a Catalan specific bourgeoisie emerged - Catalan political parties party emerged

Question 39

what was a major challenge to the restoration/second liberal state

Answer 39

the loss of Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines

Question 40

how did the restoration lose Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines? ## Footnote 1898

Answer 40

- by this point Spain had lost most of its colonies but cuba was still very profitable as a key market for spanish industries - cuban natoinalism was inspired by other latin american nations including nationalist sentiment in europe - they faced repression, lack of political reforms and persisting slavery - US intervention 1898 led to cuba's 'independence' but it became a US protectorate ## Footnote this weakened the restoration's legitimacy and shifted Spain's global focus onto Africa

Question 41

why didn't spain get more land in the scramble for Africa?

Answer 41

- the Berlin conference recognised Spanish claims in Saharan territories but limited its expansion - it focused on areas of geographical proximity so north africa and the western sahara - they got morocco but they became independent in 1956 - spanish influences persist in northern morocco - tensions remain in the western sahara

Question 42

what is the generation of 1898?

Answer 42

- a collection of key figures - e.g. unamuno (poet/novelist/philosopher), Machado (poet), Azorin (novelist), Baroja (novelist) - they saw the need to make spanish contributions to western culture better known in Europe as well as to make Spain a more european country

Question 43

what is 'invertebrate spain'

Answer 43

- coined by the generation of 1898 - a critical view of spanish society and the need to regenerate it - rejected authoritarianism, puritanism and catholic orthodoxy - dealt with the problem of the social masses in politics, socialist/communist/anarchist alternatives and the beginning of fascism

Question 44

how did the restoration state encounter a social and economic crisis?

Answer 44

- worsening work conditions and inequality - tragic week in barcelona 1909: anti-conscription riots turn violent - la canadiense strike 1919: labour movement secures 8 hour day - l

Question 45

how did the restoration state encounter a military crisis?

Answer 45

- war in morocca drains resources, rif war - defeat at the battle of annual 1921

Question 46

how did the restoration state encounter a political breakdown?

Answer 46

- turno pacifico collapses due to party fragmentation - new political forces challenge the old system

Question 47

what were external pressures on the restoration system?

Answer 47

- post WWI instability - rise of authoritarian regimes in europe - influence of russian revolution

Question 48

how did Miguel Primo de Rivera's dictatorship begin? ## Footnote 1923

Answer 48

- his intervention vowed to return power to civilian authorities within three months - but King Alphonse XIII agreed to appoint Primo as prime minister in a military directorate because of the fragmented political system - Alphonse linked the future of the monarchy therefore to the future of the dictatorship

Question 49

what was the nature of Primo de Rivera's dictatorship ## Footnote sorry

Answer 49

- programme was right wing and authoritarian but not totalitarian or fascist - strong campaign of spanish nationalism, cracked down on basque and catalan - wanted legitimacy in prosperity not elections - gained the name 'iron surgeon' to cleanse spanish politics of corruption - national catholicism became dominant ideology - develops general military academy, general francisco franco appointed as first director

Question 50

how did Primo de Rivera's dictatorship fall

Answer 50

- he did not build a stable support base in the population - his attempt at 'cleansing' the political order was not successful and reduced his support from conservative allies - republican opposition transformed local elections in a plebiscite on the monarchy - 1931 Alphonso XIII abdicates - the second republic is declared

Question 51

what were the four stages of the second republic?

Answer 51

1. provisional government 1931 2. the reformist biennium 1931-33 3. the conservative biennium 1933-36 4. the popular front 1936

Question 52

what was the 1931 provisional government ## Footnote as part of the second republic

Answer 52

- new elections for a constitutional assembly - reform of the army and agrarian reform - eruption of anti-clericalism

Question 53

what was the constitution of 1931

Answer 53

- came from a republican socialist coalition - saw popular sovereignty and universal suffrage - declaration of rights and liberties - division of powers within the states, parliament, government, judicial - historical regions like Basque recognised as special political entities - separation of church and state

Question 54

what was the republican-socialist biennium ## Footnote as part of the second republic

Answer 54

- eductional, military, agrarian, religious reforms - reforms were too radical for the right but too timid for the working class - anarchist and communist movements gained strength - economic crisis after 1929 - crisis of democracy in europe and the new fascist movement

Question 55

what was the conservative biennium ## Footnote as part of the second republic

Answer 55

- minority government had coalitions, ultra conservative, defended religion, family, property - they aimed to overturn reforms of previous years - individuals hostile to the republican cause promoted including franco - confrontational stance against catalonian and basque nationalism

Question 56

what was the revolution of october of 1934?

Answer 56

- the right wing party CEDA gained more power in the conservative biennium worrying left wing groups that they were too close to fascism - CEDA joined the government and in response workers in Asturias in particular rebelled - government sent in the military and the uprising was harshly put down with thousands arrested or killed

Question 57

what was the 1936 popular front?

Answer 57

- 1936 left wing parties (the popular front) won the elction - they wanted to bring back past reforms and support democracy - far left groups wanted faster and more radical change - violence increased, churches were attacked - the government angered the army by punishing officers like Franco - the country became increasingly unstable ## Footnote this led towards the Spanish civil war

Question 58

what was the silver age of spanish literature and art?

Answer 58

- 1898-1936 - product of industrialisation and ubranisation with relative freedom of expression - multiple generations of writers - collaborations across artists (with writers, painters and film makers working together)

Question 59

how did the spanish civil war begin?

Answer 59

- military coup began in morocco led by Franco and the army of africa - it failed to take control that split spain into nationalist and republican zones, starting the war - Germany and Italy supplied franco with weapons and troops - the catholic church also supported him - Franco used force, killing up to 200,000 people

Question 60

how was the second republic defeated?

Answer 60

- nationalist army was stronger than the republican one - left wing groups disunited, right wing ones united under Franco - many republicans fled the country - the war severely damaged the economy - franco won - l

Question 61

what was the mackenzie-papineau brigade?

Answer 61

- international brigades were volunteer fighters who came to help the republicans against Franco, they were anti-fascists - the Mac-paps were a canadian unit - they suffered heavy losses and had to withdraw

Question 62

who was Gerda Taro

Answer 62

- one of the first women war reporters - she died in spain in 1937 - knew to the war photographer Robert Capo

Question 63

what two famous books discuss the spanish civil war?

Answer 63

Homage to Catalonia - Orwell For Whom the Bell Tolls - Hemingway

Question 64

what was the first phase of franco's dictatorship

Answer 64

consolidation of power - movimiento was an organisation linking francoist state and civil society brutal repression of political opponents - able to do so because of radical politicisation of everyday life - lack of international pressure due to WWII - extreme spanish nationalism, no catalan or basque

Question 65

what was the second phase of franco's dictatorship? ## Footnote 1945-47

Answer 65

national catholicism, monarchist resotration and international integration ## Footnote - Spain exclluded from UN, NATO and the Marshall plan - rejected fascism after defeat of Italy and Germany - national catholicism as the dominant ideological discourse - US military bases opened in Spain and international integration

Question 66

what is the valley of the fallen

Answer 66

- controversial architectural space created by Franco - the bodies of over 40,000 people who died during the civil war are laid to rest here - he was accused of forcing political prisoners to work on the construction - the whole valley is seen as an unnecessary and an expensive showpiece that glosses over the war crimes of a brutal authoritarian regime

Question 67

what was the third phase of Franco's regime?

Answer 67

authoritarian development and institutionalisation | 1957-1969 ## Footnote - economic growth and political stability used for legitimacy - modernisation of state services, integration of spain into western trade networks - tourism especially boosted with economic growth

Question 68

how did tourism develop in the 1960s?

Answer 68

- tourism boomed as one of the top global destinations - this massively boosted the economy - tourists also brought new ideas (like democracy) and lifestyles that modernised spain, but caused tensions with tradition - it improved Franco's image

Question 69

how did Franco's regime come to an end?

Answer 69

- right wing coalition began to dissolve after the deteriorating health of franco - he delegates power to his right hand, blanco, but blanco is assassinated - new political associations emerge that favour reform - 1975 Franco dies

Question 70

what was the state of culture and arts under Franco?

Answer 70

- strict censorship, many went into exile - those who stayed wrote about post-war hardship to avoid censorship - Picasso's guernica condemned Franco from exile - Dali stayed globally famous but kept ties with Francoist Spain

Question 71

what was the role of King Juan Carlos in Spanish democratisation?

Answer 71

- Franco agreed with Juan Carlos' father that he would not be king as he was too liberal - Franco educated Juan Carlos from a child, essentially indoctrinating him in his ways - everyone expected him to continue Franco's ideas but when he reached power he did a 180 and was more like his father - he appointed a liberal Prime Minister and had support from Kissinger ## Footnote there were tensions from francoists and basque nationalists but he remained strong and succeeded in bringing democracy

Question 72

who was adolfo suarez?

Answer 72

- minister under Franco and a democratic reformist - key player in the organisation of the transition to democracy - he was chosen by the king to lead the government

Question 73

what major legislation was passed in the democratisation process in Spain

Answer 73

- law for political reform allowed mulyi-party liberal democracy - a referendum had a 78% participation rate and 94% were in favour - in 1977 the spanish communist party were legalised - 1977 first democratic elections

Question 74

what was the 1978 constitution ## Footnote big part of the transition to democracy

Answer 74

- sovereignty with the spanish people - decentralised state with autonomous communities - multi-party democracy - constitutional and parliamentary monarchy - separation of powers ## Footnote constitution approved in a referendum in 1978 with overwhelming approval

Question 75

what were key challenges in the 1980s to the transition to democracy?

Answer 75

- a 1981 coup - Basque terrorism - growing pains with decentralisation/centralisation, economic growth/economic crises, top down approach/civil organisation - l

Question 76

after Spanish democratisation how did cultural life transform?

Answer 76

- women's movements (political and sexual liberation) - alternative music styles (rock and punk) - spain as a cultural hub - rise of basque and catalan cultural industries ## Footnote la movida madrilena, the madrid scene

Question 77

what happened in spain in 1992

Answer 77

- supposed to be a celebration of multiculturalism and Spain's role in the world - it was a universal exhibition in seville designed to serve as an example of Spain's entry into modernity - there were also the 1992 olympic games in barcelona

Question 78

what happened in the 1996 elections in Spain?

Answer 78

- end of socialist party hegemony caused by economic stagnation, corruption and nepotism - the spanish conservative party was triumphant instead in coalition with the neoliberal catalan nationalist party and the basque nationalist party - this saw the rise of noeiberal policies in line with the rest of the west after the fall of the berlin wall ## Footnote - the elections confirmed two main parties but also confirmed the importance of nationalist parties in coalitions

Question 79

who were the ETA?

Answer 79

- a terrorist organisation from Basque that fought against both the French and Spanish for independence - from 1962 they had strong marxist tendencies, anti-religion and promoted basque culture (over race)

Question 80

what were the neo-liberal years in spain

Answer 80

- 1996-2004 - conservative party got a majority and didn't need coalitions anymore - neo-liberal policies such as the privatisation of key economic sectors led to economic growth but also rising inequality

Question 81

what was the crispacion?

Answer 81

- politics of crispacion (tension): whilst in opposition socialists promoted the need to re-address the crimes of Franco - this broke the tacit pact from the democratic transition to not re-open the wounds of teh civil war - both parties accused each other of using the memories of using the victimes for electoral benefit - ETA was widely condemned after violent tactics - Madrid train bombings, 11-M attacks: Al-Qaeda these out a few days before the 2004 election, causing the collapse of the conservative government in the polls and the return of the socialist party to power