midterm Flashcards
(70 cards)
1
Q
when was the peninsular war and why does it matter
A
1807-1814
- 1812 Napoleon suffers a large defeat and the French army is expelled from Spain leading to the creation of the Spanish constitution in the same year
- crucial to understanding the wars of latin american independence
2
Q
how did colonies rebel under French rule
A
- they rejected jose bonaparte as king
- they rejected the legitimacy of the spanish adminstration and formed their own autonomous juntas loyal to ferdinand vii
- divisions between european elites saw the rebels vs loyalists
3
Q
what are the five reasons that those who favoured independence prevailed?
A
- the breakup of the loyalist elite
- the ambivalent role of the catholic church
- the promise of a new social pact
- the rise of charismatic leaders
- the awful political, social and economic state of Spain after the Napoleonic wars
4
Q
how did the breakup of the loyalist elite mean that those who favoured Latin American independence prevailed?
A
- loyalists could be divided into liberals who wanted representation for colonies and conservatives who wanted no change at all
- these divisions were deepened with th 1812 cadiz constitution that set up a constitutional monarchy
- when it was abolished in 1814 many liberal loyalists defected to join the rebels
5
Q
how did the ambivalent role of the Catholic church mean that those who favoured Latin American independence prevailed?
A
- at a local level priests were creoles or of mixed descent, they were often unable to progress in the church due to their backgrounds and thus supported independence
- the majority of Latin America was illiterate and so ideological messages were received from the church
- they weren’t hearing the messages of highest ranking conservative officials but lower ranking clergy, the very same who had sympathies with the independence movement
6
Q
how did the breakup of the promise of a new social pact mean that those who favoured Latin American independence prevailed?
A
- the movement was led by the criollo elite who established alliances with
- the lower ranking members of the clergy
- a significant part of the mestizo who were promised citizenship rights
- some of the black and indigenous population who were made to believe that independence would also mean their independence (not the case)
7
Q
how did the rise of charismatic leaders mean that those who favoured Latin American independence prevailed?
A
- e.g. Bolivar, Miguel Hidalgo
- they were able to speak to the educated elite and the common people
- combined enlightenment ideals with local cultural ideals
- but the wars were not a result of them alone, they are typically over romanticised and the situation is far more complex
8
Q
how were the new nations of spanish america created?
A
- not created along language/cultural lines
- rather according to the regional political influence of the Criollo and Mestizo elite in each region
- this often replicated colonial adminstrative structures
9
Q
what were the six enlightened ideals of the new latin american republics
A
- republicanism
- constitutionalism
- democracy
- liberalism
- catholicism
- nationalism
10
Q
describe republicanism as an enlightened ideal of the new republic
A
most rejected monarchy as a legacy of colonial rule with the exception of Brazil that became an empire and Mexico that briefly had a monarchy
11
Q
describe constitutionalism as an enlightened ideal of the new republic
A
- inspired by enlightenment ideals
- leaders sought to organise society through written constitutions
- establish the rule of law, protect individual rights etc.
- not that successful, often rewritten
12
Q
describe democracy as an enlightened ideal of the new republic
A
- practice of democracy deviated from ideals
- limited suffrage
- authoritarian tendencies overshadowed legislative and judicial branches
- political corruption
13
Q
describe liberalism as an enlightened ideal of the new republic
A
- emphasis on private property rights and free market economy
- tensions between this and traditional, indigenous communal landholding systems
14
Q
describe catholicism as an enlightened ideal of the new republic
A
- liberals wanted a secular state
- conservative saw the church as essential for maintaining social order and cultural identity
15
Q
describe nationalism as an enlightened ideal of the new republic
A
- efforts to forge national identities around values, spaces and symbols
- flags as powerful symbols to unify highly diverse populations
16
Q
what was the division between centralists vs federalists in 19th century latin america
A
- centralists: elites based in former colonial capitals who advocated for centralised power to maintain historic dominance
- federalists: regional elites inspired by the US who pushed for greater local autonomy and more distributed power
17
Q
what was the division between liberals and conservatives in 19th century latin america after they’d achieved independence
A
- liberals: advocated for the separation of church and state, wider electoral participation and weak executive power
- conservatives: rejected separation of church and state, restricted electoral participation and wanted to maintain old colonial privileges, strong executive power
18
Q
how did caudillos ries in the 19th century?
A
as regional and urban elites competed for control of newly independent republics military strongmen
charismatic soldier-politicians with strong regional loyalties
reliance on corruption to maintain power
19
Q
can you give two examples of caudillos
A
juan manuel de rosas of argentina
general santa anna of mexico
20
Q
how did the landowning elite emerge?
A
- liberals prioritised private property, dismantiling indigenous communal landholding systems
- crown, church and royalist lands were distributed amongst elites
- governments viewed these large estates as important for agricultural productivity
21
Q
why was there urban growth in 19th century latin america?
A
- the end of slavery: freed slaves migrated to the cities, creating poor neighberhoods
- indigenous migration: with agricultural mechanisation many moved to cities
- displaced mestizos: rural mestizos moved to cities as a result of wars, revolutions and economic disruption
22
Q
what were the consequences of urbanisation
A
- cities grew in political power
- it created a large working class for emergin industry
- inequality became even more evident, one of the most unequal continents in the world
- the creation of a middle class in larger cities
23
Q
encomienda
A
control over communities granted by the spanish government to conquistadores in the 16th century
24
Q
haciendas
A
in the 17th and 18th centuries the term for a large estate, occupying specific adminstrative areas
25
latifundia
when colonial legislation was abolished, owners of haciendas expanded significantly free from crown limitations
when they expanded they turned local populations into serfs
26
how did Brazil become an empire?
- In 1808, Napoleon’s invasion forced the Portuguese royal family to flee to Brazil, making it the empire’s center
- the monarchy returned after they were pressured to in Portugal
- King Joao returned to Portugal and left his son Dom Pedro as regent of Brazil
- influenced by independence movements, Dom Pedro declared independence, leading to a peaceful transition to empire
- He became Emperor of Brazil, and the monarchy lasted until 1889
27
what was the argentine conquest of the desert?
- late 19th century
- they wanted control over the Patagonian region in competition with Chile that had traditionally been controlled by indigenous peoples
- it saw genocide, the forced displacement and the loss of traditional lands for them
- argentine territory was hugely expanded
28
why did people emigrate to Latin America?
- wars, conflicts and natural disasters like the irish famine and world war one saw millions searching for a new home
- latin america was experiencing economic booms, marketed as a land of prosperity
- many latin american governments encouraged european migration to 'whiten' their populations
## Footnote
asians were rather lured in by promising contracts that resulted in exploitative servitude that filled the gap of slavery. there is still a large asian population e.g. the popular peruvian food chifa
29
what are the six consequences of immigration into latin america?
1. increased cultural diversity: e.g. chifa
2. introduction of new political and social ideas: e.g. socialism, communism, anarchism
3. artistic cultural exchange e.g. modernism
4. industrialisation and economic development: immigratns had technical skills
5. social tensions and racial hierarchy: they were often segregates in society
6. increased urbanisation
30
who started mexican independence?
the 'grito de dolores' by father miguel hidalgo in 1811
31
who led the Mexican revolution
- Mexican conservative elites
- once they realised Spain wouldn't be able to recover the territory they switched to the rebels side
32
when was Mexican independence
1821
33
what was the plan of iguala
a propsal for Mexican independence that established the country as an independent constitutional monarchy, upheld Roman Catholicism as the state religion and guaranteed social equality between Spaniards and Creoles
## Footnote
Agustin de Iturbide is crowned emperor of Mexico
34
when did Mexico become a republic
- after a brief imperial regime under iturbide from 1821-824, Mexico became a republic
- however it was plagued by instability with the presidency changing hands 75 times in 55 years
35
what and when was the American-Mexican war?
- 1846-1848
- Mexico lost a third of its territory to the US after it refused to sell its land
36
what was 'la reforma'
- part of the Mexican revolution
- an attempt by liberal elites to weaken the power of the Catholic church and conservative elites
- it led to civil war between the two factions and the prominent liberal politician Benito Juarez was named President
- Conservative elites ought French support to oust him
37
what was the second mexican empire
- Mexico owed money to France, Spain and GB
- the three travelled there to get their money back
- the French under Napoleon III wanted to expand their empire
- they took Mexico city in 1863 and declared a monarchy
- Maximilian of Habsburg becomes emperor of mexico
38
what happened after the collapse of the second mexican empire
- political instability plagues the country
- general porfirio diaz who had fought in the war against the french starts a long period of autocratic rule known as the porfiriato
## Footnote
1876-1911
39
what was the porfiriato
- he wanted to jumpstart the country's economy by opening it to foreign investment
- it left the majority of its land in the hands of a few business men and the majority of the population in poverty
- there was strong economic growth but an unequal distribution of resources and extreme inequality
40
what happened after the porfiriato?
- the Mexican revolution
- very confusing series of events in which Obregon ends as president in 1920 with villa and zapata assassinated
41
what economic and social changes took place in latin america that meant marxism, socialism and anarchism were able to take root?
- urbanisation saw spread of ideas
- arrival of immigrants brought new ideas
- there was deepening social and economic inequality leading to widespread unrest that was met with brutal repression
42
how did alternatives to old religious explanations of inequality mean that marxism, socialism and anarchism were able to take root?
- it attributed social and economic inequality to divine providence
- Marxism offered an alternative to this and the chance for social mobility
43
how did a new way of structuring society mean that marxism, socialism and anarchism were able to take root?
- 19th century political discourse had always been shaped by liberalism and conservatism
- Marxism offered a radical new option that challenged both ideologies
44
what was marxisms relationship with indigeneity
- there was a growing indigenous movement
- marxism saw history as progress towards a fully industrialised society and thus saw indigeneity as backwards
- in rural areas indigenous leaders merged these ideas with their own but many were reluctant to abandon ancestral culture in favour of a marxist utopia
45
what are some of the challenges that young latin american democracies faced?
1. electoral integrity
2. poor separation of powers
3. unelected actors
4. public trust eroded by both liberalsand conservatives, and radical communists
46
what time period was shaped by populist leaders?
1920-1945
47
how did populist leaders of the 20th century consolidate their power
- derived authority from broad mass mvoements not regional power bases
- exploited rising urban literacy and education levels, propoganda
- had ambitious agendas to reshape their economic and social foundations (nationalisation of key industries)
- populist leaders with compelling personalities, an almost religious following
48
who was Lazaro Cardenas
- 1934-1940, the institutional revolutionary party in Mexico
- nationalised industry, agrarian reform and strengthened labour union rights
- expanded education, promoted indigenous rights
- generally regarded as Mexico's most beloved 20th century president
49
who is Juan Domingo Peron
- President of Argentina
- his political ideology combined elements of nationalism, populism and corporatism
- he implemented policies aimed at improving the lives of workers and promoting industrialisation
- introduced labour reforms, social welfare programmes and natinoalisation of key industries
## Footnote
his legacy is complex with some praising his efforts to empower the working class and others citing corruption and economic mismanagement
50
who was Eva Peron?
- first lady of Argentina
- wife of Peron
- she was particularly involved in the labour movement and was important in obtaining women's right to vote in the country
- her early death of cancer put her into a kind of religious position
51
who was Getulio Vargas
- president of the new brazilian republic 1930-37
- introduced groundbreaking labour reforms like minimum wages, paid vacation etc.
- from 1937-45 there was the estado novo where he staged a coup to present a 'communist takeover'
- continued with rapid industrialisation, infrastructure development and centralised control
## Footnote
he introduced progressive social reforms but was controversial for democratic suppression
52
what was latin america's role in the first world war
- some countries like Brazil and Argentina joined the allies near the end of the war
- this was because of similar ideology to Germany and Italy
- housing a significant portion of their populations
- efforts to counterbalance US economic and political dominance in the region
53
what was latin america's role in the cold war?
- it became a stage for the rivalry between the US and the Soviet Union
- characterised by the UK policy of containment and soviet influence of leftist movements
54
what is an example of US intervention during the cold war?
- in guetamala when Arbenz came to power and implemented various socialist policies like in Mexico
- the United Fruit Company (UFCO) owned extensive land and feared the loss of profits so lobbied the US gov for intervention
- in 1954 the CIA overthrew Arbenz and installed a military dictatorship filled with political repression and human rights abuses
55
what was the role of UFCO in latin america?
- controlled vast plantations thus dominated local economies, labour markets and infrastructure development
- they displaced indigenous communities, exploited labour and caused severe environmental damage
56
what is the school of the americas
- established in 1946 it is linked to human rights abuses, authoritarianism and anti-democratic practices
- it trained military personnel in the cold war to combat communism
57
who is rafael trujillo
- 1891-1961
- dictator in the dominican republic
- regime perpetuated social inequality
- the parsley massacre killed over 20,000 Haitians
- supported by the US but his scandals meant they eventuall backed his removal
- ii
58
what was the 1952 bolivian revolution
- wealth was controlled by a small elite
- in april there was armed uprising with workers militias defeating the military
- they implemented major reforms like universal suffrage, nationalisation of mines and agrarian and military reform
- they set the stage for later leftist movements
59
what was the Bracero programme?
- a labour programme agreed in 1942 between Roosevelt and the President of Mexico
- it aimed to recruit mexicans to fill a labour shortage in the US
- it was successful but mexican labourers had poor rights and conditions and were deported when they were no longer needed
60
what was the latin american literary boom?
- a period of high literary output from latin american authors that influenced global literature
- e.g. Gabriel Garcia Marquez
- they were characterised by magical realism, political and social critique and experimental narrative styles
- they gained international acclaim
61
what are the three most influential latin american wars?
1. spanish american war of independence
2. the mexican revolution
3. the cuban revolution
62
what was the history of cuba until 1959
- colonial era 1492-1868
- independence struggle 1868-1898
- american influence 1902-1959
63
what are the four stages of the cuban revolution?
- revolutionary period 1953-1959
- socialist transformation 1959-1967
- global impact 1962-1983
- social achievements and political repression 1970s onwards
64
who was Che Guevara?
- born to a middle class family but a motorcycle journey across the continent exposed him to inequality
- met Castro and joined the revolutionary movement, played instrumental role
- left cuba in 1965 to spread ideology and led a revolution in Bolivia where he was captured and executed without a trial
65
how is the cuban revolution linked to the arts?
- artists and intellectuals were massively in support of the revolution
- the revolution also propelled many artists into the world stage
66
what was the role of US involvement in latin america from the 1960s to 1980s
- operation condor was a secret alliance linked to military dictatorships in the hope to stop the spread of communism
67
how did Chile reach democracy?
- 1970-73 a socialist experiment under Allende collapsed with a military coup
- 1973-75 military rule was brutal
- 1975-82 'chicago boys' implemented free market reforms that produced the chilean miracle of economic growth but increased inequality that led to the 1982 debt crisis
- 1988-90 democratic transition was slow with a complex legacy of economic growth and social trauma
68
how did Mexico reach independence?
- the golden age 1940-68: PRI dominated, mexican miracle of economic growth
- crisis 1968-82: Mexico plunged into the debt crisis
- electoral crisis and reform 1982-1994: the PRI's leader came to power fraudelently and he accelerated their neoliberal transformations
- internal crisis and collapse 1994-2000: the 1994 presidential candidate was assassinated and his replacement struggled. democratic reforms were introduced and the PRI was defeated in 2000
69
what was the dirty war in argentina?
- a period of state terrorism under a military junta that used kidnappings, torture, and executions to eliminate political opposition, resulting in the disappearance of an estimated 30,000 people
- resistance movements fought for justice, and after the regime’s fall, human rights trials were held and renewed prosecutions in the 2000s
70
