final

Question 1

positive correlation

Answer 1

the relationship is such that a high score on one variable is associated with a high score on the second variable

-a low score relates to a low score

Question 2

negative correlation

Answer 2

an inverse relationship

-high scores on one variable are associated with low scores on the second variable, and vice versa

Question 3

assumption of linerarity

Answer 3

• the relationship between variable X and Y is linear - neither increasing nor decreasing (monotonic) (when the line “levels” out)
• violation of this would have the effect of reducing the size of the correlation

Question 4

restricting the range

Answer 4

• limit the data in a population to some criterion (i.e., SAT scores 1200 and higher), or use a subset of data to determine whether two pieces of information are correlated, or connected. so…“SAT scores will produce higher college GPA”
• of one or both of the measured variables weakens the correlation
• not representational information/data

Question 5

coefficient of determination

Answer 5

• a better interpretation of a correlation
• found by squaring the Pearson’s r – coefficient will always be a positive number, regardless if the correlation is positive or negative
• the portion of variability in one of the variables in the correlation that can be accounted for by variability in the second variable (i.e., SAT scores and the correlation to GPA)

Question 6

regression analysis

Answer 6

• making predications on the basis of correlational research
• correlational research provides the foundation for using psychological tests to make predictions
• if you a statistically significant correlation exists between two variables, then knowing a score on one of the variables enables you to predict a score on the other

Question 7

basic formula for regression lines

Answer 7

Y = a + bX

y: criterion variable; value you’re attempting to predict
a: y-intercept of the regression line
b: slope of the regression line

X: predictor variable; known value

Question 8

directionality (correlations and causality)

Answer 8

-the casual relation could occur in either direction

A causing B or vice versa

-one cannot decide the direction of the causality

Question 9

cross-lagged panel correlation technique

Answer 9

a type of correlational research designed to deal with the directionality problem

-if variables X and Y are measured at two different times and if X preceded Y, then X might be causing Y but Y cannot cause X

Question 10

third-variable problem

Answer 10

if there is a strong correlation between X and Y, it is possible that X caused Y or Y caused X OR something else cause both X and Y

Question 11

partial correlation

Answer 11

statistical procedure that allows you to remove the effects of the value of some know “third-variable” from the equation in order to see what correlation remains after that removal

Question 12

Psychometric correlation use

Answer 12

• establish reliability of a test/measurement

- establish validity of a test/measure

Question 13

Personality and Abnormal psychology correlation use

Answer 13

• trying to figure out if one attribute leads to another
• i.e., are attractive people happier or is it the happier you are, the more time you spend on appearance, or does an aspect of personality (i.e., extraversion) influence attractiveness, etc.
• e.g., Sleman: learned-helplessness
• attributional style questionnaire and Beck Depression Inventory

Results: severity of depression significantly correlated with pessimistic explanatory style

Question 14

Nature-nurture correlation us

Answer 14

• heritability of IQ?

heritability of shyness?

Question 15

bivariate analysis

Answer 15

a statistical analysis investigating the relationship between two variables

Question 16

multivariate analysis

Answer 16

a statistical analysis investigating the relationships among more than two variables

i.e., multiple regression and factor analysis

Question 17

factor analysis

Answer 17

type of statistical procedure that is conducted to identify clusters or groups of related items (called factors) on a test

Question 18

basic research

Answer 18

goal is to increase our core knowledge about human behavior and mental processes in psychology

-usually takes place in a laboratory

Question 19

applied research

Answer 19

designed primarily to increase our knowledge about a particular real-world problem with an eye toward directly solving it

-conducted in clinics, social service agencies, jails, gov’t agencies, and business settings

Question 20

quasi-experimental designs

Answer 20

• used if subjects cannot be randomly assigned
• “quasi” means lack of control and therefore have a lower status of being “true”
• great value in applied research

Question 21

non-equivalent control group

Answer 21

• two groups are compared
• no random assignment bc participants cannot or should not be separated (i.e., at a mental health institute, you can’t give one group therapy and not the other– that’s unethical but you can give them “new” therapy vs. “old”therapy)
• groups are not equal at the start of the study

Schematic:

O (obs) X (manipulated) O
O O

Question 22

interrupted times series design

Answer 22

special type of time series where treatment/intervention occurred at a specific point and the series is broken up by the introduction of the intervention.
–If the treatment has a causal impact, the post- intervention series will have a different level or slope

O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6
initial obs/manip / followup

allows for the analysis of trends in the data, both before and after the manipulation

Question 23

archival research

Answer 23

a method in which existing records are examined to test a hypothesis

i.e., census data, gov’t files, diaries, medical records, etc.

ADV: used for gathering historical data, not hard to get, low reactivity

DISADV: access to private records may be more limited, make due with what is in the data, no control over the manner of data collection

Question 24

formative evaluation

Answer 24

form of program evaluation that monitors the functioning of a program while it is operating to determining if it is functioning as planned

Question 25

summative evaluation

Answer 25

form of program evaluation, completed at the close of the program, that attempts to determine its effectiveness in solving the problem for which it was planned

Question 26

needs analysis

Answer 26

form of program evaluation that occurs before a program begins and determines whether the program is needed

Question 27

cost-effectiveness analysis

Answer 27

form of program evaluation that assesses outcomes in terms of the coasts involved in developing, running, and completing the program

Question 28

small N designs

Answer 28

make important contributions to our knowledge of behavior of individuals

• potential subjects are rare or hard to find or not a lot of money to conduct research
• they are normally studied over time – no control or experimental group but rather compared before and after interventions

Question 29

What was Skinner’s dependent variable of choice?

Answer 29

rate of response

Question 30

applied behavior analysis

Answer 30

• the applications side of the experimental analysis of behavior
• includes any procedure that uses behavioral, especially operant, principles to solve real-life problems

Question 31

Reversal/withdrawal design (small N design)

Answer 31

if a treatment goes into effect and behavior changes but the change is due to maturation, history, or regression, then it is unlikely the behavior will return to its original form if the treatment is subsequently removed or withdrawn

A-B-A design

Question 32

Multiple baseline design

Answer 32

• a return to baseline conditions is not always desired
• that is, once we produce the desired change we may not want to risk returning to the original condition (problem)

A-B-A-B procedure: the behavior will not return to baseline but will remain high

Question 33

Changing criterion design

Answer 33

-reinforce successive approximations of a final desired behavior (i.e., shaping, lever pressing for food)

Rats in the Skinner Box were conditioned to push a lever for food

-target behavior is too difficult or complex for the person to reach it all at once, so it must be done in increment

Question 34

why do researchers prefer ABAB studies over ABA studies

Answer 34

ABAB studies are studies (like the ADHD study in book) where the person receives a baseline, followed by treatment, a withdrawal from treatment, and then the reinforcement of treatment

-if behavior changes accompany the intro and removal of treatment, confidence is increased bc that means the treatment is causing the change – confidence is further strengthened if reintroducing the treatment brings out another change in behavior (ABAB)

Question 35

AB vs ABA

Answer 35

ABA is the withdrawal of treatment after it’s been in effect for awhile

-able to see if behavior changes after treatment is removed

Question 36

case studies

Answer 36

refers to a detailed description and analysis of a single individual

Question 37

advantages of case studies

Answer 37

• can provide a level of detailed analysis not found in other research strategies
• well-chosen cases can provide prototypical descriptions of certain types of individuals

-can provide inductive support for theory, suggest hypotheses for further testing with other methods, and serve the purpose of falsification

Question 38

limitations of case studies

Answer 38

• conclusions drawn on the basis of a single individual may not generalize (problems with external validity)
• ample opportunity exists for the theoretical biases of the researcher to color case study descriptions

Question 39

observational research

Answer 39

to provide clear and accurate descriptions of behavior

Question 40

naturalistic obervation

Answer 40

the goal is to study the behaviors of people or animals as they act in their everyday environments

Question 41

participant observation

Answer 41

researchers will join a group being observed, or at least make their presence known to the group

• gets investigator as close to the study as possible

Question 42

Problems with Observation methods

Answer 42

Absence of control
Observer bias
Participant reactivity
Ethics

Question 43

Absence of control

Answer 43

some degree of control occurs in observational studies, but, in general, the observational researcher must take what circumstances provide

Question 44

Observer bias

Answer 44

having preconceived ideas about what will be observed and having those ideas color one’s observations

Question 45

Participant Reactivity

Answer 45

behavior is influenced because participants know they are being watched

-want to act in a way that they think the researcher want them to act

Question 46

Ethics

Answer 46

it’s hard to keep reactivity low while still trying to be ethical

-can influence study

Question 47

Unobtrusive measures

Answer 47

Erosion measures
Accretion measures
Archival measures

Question 48

Erosion measures

Answer 48

• interpret the “wearing away” of something as an index of behavior
  i. e., Chicago Museum of Science and industry – where the floor is more worn that is a popular exhibit (what about class trips?)

Question 49

Accretion measures

Answer 49

interpret the “buildup of physical matter” as an index of behavior

i.e., do politicians obey “dry laws”?

Question 50

Archival measures

Answer 50

analysis/categorization of data from existing public and/or private records (“file study”)

i.e., gov’t files, diaries, medical records, census data, etc.

Question 51

naturalistic observation with intervention

Answer 51

-observer intends to be part of the situation, but without letting others know he/she is an observer

can manipulate the environment without anyone knowing

Question 52

survey

Answer 52

relies on people’s observations of their own behaviors and attidtudes

Question 53

interview survey

Answer 53

• can cover all topics about which data are needed

- yields highly detailed info

Question 54

phone survey

Answer 54

• costs less and more interviews per unit of time spent (adv)
• must be brief and the response rate is lower (disadv)

Question 55

written survey (questionnaires)

Answer 55

• can ask many questions and people can complete them on their own time (adv)
• return rate may not be as high (disadv)

Question 56

electronic surveys

Answer 56

• quick way to gather a lot of data
• scoring can be done by the computer almost instantaneously (adv)

-available only to those with computer access and some computer skills (disadv)

Question 57

social desirability bias

Answer 57

a type of response bias in survey research

-occurs when people respond to a question by trying to put themselves in the favorable light

Question 58

sample frame

Answer 58

list of individuals from whom a sample will be drawn

-with cluster sampling, a list of groups from which a sample of groups will be selected

Question 59

experimenter bias

Answer 59

occurs when an experimenter’s expectations about a study affect its outcome

Question 60

double blind

Answer 60

a control procedure designed to reduce bias

• neither the participants nor the person conducting the experimental session knows what condition of the study is being tested
• often used in studies evaluating drug effect (i.e., placebos)

Question 61

pseudoscience

Answer 61

a field of inquiry that attempts to associate with true science, relies exclusively on selective anecdotal evidence and is deliberately too vague to be adequately tested

Question 62

characteristics pf pseudoscience

Answer 62

• try hard to associate with true science
• rely primarily on anecdotal and testimonial evidence
• sidestep all the important falsification criterion
• take complex phenomenon (i.e., character, personality) and try to convince you these phenomena can be understood by relying on simple-to-undersatnd concepts (head shape, handwriting shape)