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1
Q

Signs related to the specific area of the brain or spinal cord in which lesion is located

A

Local (Focal) Effects of Neurologic Dysfunction

2
Q

: Individual is aware and capable of thinking but is paralyzed and cannot communicate

A

*Locked-in syndrome

3
Q

Loss of awareness and mental capabilities, resulting from diffuse brain damage

A

Vegetative state:

4
Q

loss of consciousness or coma

A

The most serious level:

5
Q

7 General Effects of Neurologic Dysfunction

A

local effects

Level of Consciousness

Brain death

Motor Dysfunction

Sensory Deficits

Language Disorders

Dysarthria

6
Q

Cessation of brain function

Absence of brainstem reflexes or responses

Absence of spontaneous respirations when ventilator assistance is withdrawn

A

Brain death

7
Q

: Muscle tone and reflexes maybe increased

A

Hyperreflexia

8
Q

leads to immobility resulting contracture in the affected limbs

A

Spastic paralysis:

9
Q

Inability to comprehend or express language

A

Aphasia

10
Q

5 Increased Intracranial Pressure

early signs

A
Decreasing level of consciousness 
Decreased pupillary responses
Severe headache: 
Vomiting,
Papilledema
11
Q

6 Increased Intracranial Pressure

late signs

A
Increase pulse pressure 
slowing heart rate 
Irregular respiration
Systemic vasoconstriction
Ptosis (droopy eyelid
Pupils dilated
12
Q

: mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI)

A

Concussion

13
Q

is a bruising of brain tissue-hematoma

A

Contusion

14
Q

___________ injury: direct injuries

A

Primary brain

15
Q

_________ injuries: caused by the development of additional injurious factors

A

Secondary

16
Q

sudden excessive movement of the brain, disrupting neurologic function and leading to loss of consciousness.

reversible

A

Concussion

17
Q

may result from a dislocation or fracture of a vertebra related to flexion, hyperextension, compression, or penetration injury

A

Spinal cord injury

18
Q

Complete loss of reflex function (skeletal, bladder, bowel, sexual function, thermal control, and autonomic control) below level of lesion

A

Spinal shock

19
Q

Result from temporary localized reduction of blood flow in the brain

Recovery occurs within 24 hours

A

Transient Ischemic Attacks (TIAs)

20
Q

Vascular Disorder Caused by
Partial occlusion of an artery, Atherosclerosis, Small embolus

Vascular spasm, Local loss of autoregulation

A

Transient Ischemic Attacks (TIAs)

21
Q

Vascular Disorder with Signs and symptoms:

The manifestations are related to the location of the ischemia

Remain conscious

Intermittent short episode of impaired function

  • Repeated attacks may be a warning sign for obstruction related to atherosclerosis (CVA)
A

Transient Ischemic Attacks (TIAs)

22
Q

is defined as an acute neurologic deficit lasting more than 24 hours and caused by cerebrovascular etiology.

Brain tissue necrosis that results from lack of blood.

A

Cerebrovascular Accidents (stroke)

23
Q

__________ stroke: rupture of cerebral vessel

Long term hypertension, anticoagulant, arteriosclerosis, etc

A

Hemorrhagic

24
Q

_______ stroke: occlusion of a cerebral blood vessel
Thrombus: atheroma narrowing

Embolus: embolus lodging

Increasing age

Smoking and combination of oral contraceptives

Congenital malformation of blood vessels

A

Ischemic

25
Q

is an infection, usually of bacterial origin, in the meninges of the CNS.

Respiratory droplets transmission

A

Meningitis

26
Q

–resistance to leg extension when lying with the hip flexed

A

Kernig’s sign

27
Q

–neck flexion causes flexion of hip and knee

A

Brudzinski’s sign

28
Q

Signs and symptoms of __________

Severe headache, back pain, photophobia, and nuchal rigidity (a hyperextended, stiff neck).

Kernig’s sign

Brudzinski’s sign-

A

Meningitis

29
Q

Localized dilation in an artery, due to weakness of the artery wall.

Often aggravated by hypertension

A

Cerebral Aneurysms

30
Q

Signs and symptoms:

Initially small and asymptomatic

Loss of visual field or visual disturbances–enlarging aneurysm

Headache and photophobia, due to leak or rupture

Nuchal rigidity

Complications
Rupture: vomiting, seizures, loss of consciousness, rapidly followed by death

A

Cerebral Aneurysms

31
Q

Uncontrolled, excessive discharge of neurons in the brain

A

Seizure:

32
Q

: recurrent seizure

A

Epilepsy

33
Q

seizure type where

(both hemispheres affected with loss of consciousness)

Absence seizures (petit mal)

Tonic-clonic (grand mal)

A

Generalized

34
Q

seizure type where

(focal, reduced awareness and conscious remain)

Simple

Complex

Complications
Respiration: hypoxia, aspiration, airway obstruction, etc
Injury
Acidosis

A

Partial

35
Q

Progressive demyelination of neurons in the brain, spinal cord, and cranial nerves

Onset: usually 20 to 40 years of age, common in women

Characterized by remission and exacerbation

A

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

36
Q

Pathophysiology
Inflammation-demyelination (Loss of myelin in white matter of brain or spinal cord)

Plaques: develop later, become visible

A

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

37
Q

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) 3 signs and symptoms

A

visual disturbance:
sensory deficits:
weakness in legs

38
Q

Progressive degeneration in basal nuclei, mainly in the substantia nigra

decease secretion of dopamine

A

Parkinson’s Disease

39
Q

____________ Parkinson’s disease

Usually develops after age 60

A

Primary or idiopathic

40
Q

__________________parkinsonism caused by:
Encephalitis
Trauma (e.g., sports injury)
Vascular disease
Drug-induced (e.g., phenothiazine tranquilizers

A

Secondary

41
Q

No identified cause

Progressive degenerative disease affecting upper motor neurons in the cerebral cortex and lower motor neurons in brainstem and spinal cord

Cognition unimpaired

A

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

42
Q

Sign and symptoms:
Upper extremity weakness and atrophy

Progressive muscle weakness and loss of fine motor coordination–fall

The weakness and paralysis progress throughout the body

Dysarthria, swallowing and respiration are impaired

Death usually from respiratory failure

*Hypoxia and hypercarbia, and having difficulty expelling mucous secretions

A

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

43
Q

Autoimmune disorder

Autoantibodies to acetylcholine (ACh) receptors form.

Destruction of receptor site, skeletal muscle weakness

Facial and ocular muscles usually affected first

A

Myasthenia Gravis

44
Q

Signs and symptoms:
Muscle weakness in face and eyes

Edrophonium chloride (Tensilon) test

Complication:
Dysphagia and aspiration are significant problems!
Upper respiratory infections
Myasthenic crisis–respiratory impairment

A

Myasthenia Gravis

45
Q

Progressive chronic disease

Cortical function is decreased.
Impaired cognitive skills: thinking, judgment, and learning
Memory loss
Confusion
Behavioral and personality changes
A

Dementia

46
Q

signs and symptoms:

Vascular disease
Infections
Genetic disorders
AD is the most common form

A

Dementia

47
Q

Progressive cortical atrophy

Neurofibrillary tangles, senile plagues which disrupt neural conduction

ACh deficit also occurs in the affected brain

A

Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)

48
Q

______ stage: Inability to recognize family, lack of environmental awareness, incontinence, inability to function

A

Late

49
Q

______ stage: gradual loss of memory and lack of concentration

A

Early

50
Q

5 Types of Pain

A

Headache

Central pain

Neuropathic pain

Ischemic pain

Cancer-related pain

51
Q

Pain is perceived at a site distant from the source.

Source may be difficult to determine.

pain in the left neck and arm

Due to heart attack or ischemia in the heart

A

Referred pain

52
Q

Pain or another sensation such as itching or tingling occurs in some individuals, usually adults, after an amputation.

Usually does not respond to common pain therapies

May resolve within weeks to months

Phenomenon not fully understood

A

Phantom pain

53
Q

is the degree of pain, either its intensity or its duration, which is endured before an individual takes some action.

Culturally related, varies among individuals

A

Pain tolerance

54
Q

Level of stimulation required to elicit a pain response

Usually does not vary among individuals

A

Pain threshold

55
Q
Inflammation
Infection
Ischemia and tissue necrosis
Stretching of tissue
Stretching of tendons, ligaments, joint capsule
Chemicals 
Burns 
Muscle spasm
A

Causes of Pain

56
Q

excessive amount of fluid in the interstitial compartment, which causes a swelling or enlargement of the tissue

A

Edema

57
Q

5 causes of edemas

A
Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure
Loss of plasma proteins
Obstruction of lymphatic circulation
Increased capillary permeability 
bacterial toxins or large burn wounds
58
Q

cause of edema where

Caused by higher blood pressure or increased blood volume

Forces increased fluid out of capillaries into tissue

Cause of pulmonary edema

A

Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure

59
Q

cause of edema where

Particularly albumin

Results in decreased plasma osmotic pressure

A

Loss of plasma proteins

60
Q

cause of edema where

Causes localized edema

Excessive fluid and protein not returned to general circulation

A

Obstruction of lymphatic circulation

61
Q

cause of edema where

Usually causes localized edema

May result from an inflammatory response or infection

A

Increased capillary permeability

62
Q

5 major symptoms of edema

A

Swelling
Pale or red in color

Pitting edema
Depression―“pit” remains when finger pressure is
removed

Increase in body weight
With generalized edema

Functional impairment
Restricts range of joint movement

Edematous tissue in skin is susceptible to tissue breakdown
Proper skin care

63
Q

refers to insufficient body fluid resulting from Inadequate intake or excessive loss or both.

A

Dehydration

64
Q

3 major Causes of dehydration

A

Vomiting and diarrhea

Excessive sweating with loss of sodium and water

Insufficient water intake in older adults or unconscious persons

65
Q

4 major signs of dehydration

A

Dry mucous membranes in the mouth

Decreased skin turgor or elasticity

Lower blood pressure

Decreased mental function, confusion,

66
Q

high sodium = high________ pressure

A

osmotic

67
Q

proper amount of sodium

A

135 mEq/L – 145 mEq/L

68
Q

when Serum sodium less than 135 mEq/l, sodium deficit, excessive water

A

Hyponatremia

69
Q

3 main causes of Hyponatremia

A

Excessive water intake

Excessive sweating, vomiting, diarrhea

Diuretic drugs combined with low-salt diet

70
Q

4 symptoms of Hyponatremia

A

Fatigue,
muscle cramps,
nausea,
vomiting

71
Q

is an excessive sodium levels in the blood and extracellular fluids (> 145 mEq per liter)

A

Hypernatremia

72
Q

2 causes of Hypernatremia

A

Ingestion of large amounts of sodium

Loss of water from the body

73
Q

4 symptoms of Hypernatremia

A

Weakness
Dry, rough mucous membranes
Increased thirst
Urinary output is decreased

74
Q

Abnormal potassium levels cause changes in____________ and are life-threatening!

A

cardiac conduction

75
Q

Major intracellular cation

3.5-5mEq/L

A

potassium balance

76
Q

Serum potassium less than 3.5 mEq/L

A

Hypokalemia

77
Q

4 main causes of Hypokalemia

A

Diarrhea
Diuretic drugs
Excessive aldosterone
Decreased dietary intake

78
Q

2 symptoms of Hypokalemia

A

Muscle weakness , Paresthesias―“pins and needles”(numb)

Cardiac dysrhythmias

79
Q

Serum potassium is greater than 5 mEq/L

A

Hyperkalemia

80
Q

3 causes of Hyperkalemia

A

Renal failure

Deficit of aldosterone; “Potassium-sparing” diuretics

Tissue injury

Leakage of intracellular potassium into extracellular fluids

81
Q

2 symptoms of Hyperkalemia

A

Muscle weakness common, progresses to paralysis

Cardiac dysrhythmias, may progress to cardiac arrest

82
Q

excess hydrogen ions (H+), decrease in serum pH

A

Acidosis:

83
Q

deficit of hydrogen ions (H+), increase in serum pH

A

Alkalosis:

84
Q

3 Compensation Mechanisms for pH Imbalance

A

Buffers
Change in respiration
Change in renal function

85
Q

type of acidosis where Increase carbon dioxide levels

A

Respiratory Acidosis

86
Q

type of acidosis where Decease in serum bicarbonate

A

Metabolic Acidosis

87
Q

Excessive loss of bicarbonate ions to buffer hydrogen

Diarrhea―loss of bicarbonate from intestines

Increased use of serum bicarbonate

Renal disease or failure

are all causes of

A

Metabolic Acidosis

88
Q
Suppressed nervous system function
Headache
Lethargy
Weakness
Confusion
Coma and death

are all effects of ______

A

acidosis

89
Q

type of alkalosis where

Hyperventilation
Caused by anxiety, high fever, overdose of aspirin
Head injuries
Brainstem tumor

A

Respiratory alkalosis

90
Q

type of alkalosis where

Increase in serum bicarbonate ion
Loss of hydrochloric acid from stomach
Hypokalemia
Excessive ingestion of antacids

A

Metabolic alkalosis

91
Q
Increased irritability of the nervous system
Restlessness
Muscle twitching
Tingling and numbness of the fingers
Tetany
Seizures
Coma 

are all effects of _________

A

Alkalosis

92
Q

A protective mechanism and important basic concept in pathophysiology. It is the body’s nonspecific response to tissue injury.

A

Inflammation

93
Q

Inflammation Disorders are named using the ending ______

A

itis.

94
Q

7 Causes of Inflammation

A

Direct physical damage

Caustic chemicals

Ischemia or infarction

Allergic reactions

Extremes of heat or cold

Foreign bodies

Infection

95
Q

in the steps of Inflammation

Injury to ________ and tissue cells

Release of _________ from injured cells

Bradykinin stimulates ______ receptors.

Pain causes release of _________

Bradykinin and histamine cause ________

Migration of ______ & _________ to the site of injury

Neutrophils _________ bacteria.

___________ (mature monocytes) leave the bloodstream and phagocytose microbes.

A

capillaries

bradykinin

pain

histamine.

capillary dilation.

neutrophils and monocyte

phagocytize

Macrophages

96
Q

in this type of inflammaion

Process of inflammation is the same, regardless of cause.

A

Acute Inflammation

97
Q

in this type of inflammaion

Timing varies with specific cause

A

Acute Inflammation

98
Q

In Acute Inflammation

Chemical mediators affect blood vessels and nerves in the damaged area through what 4 ways

A

Vasodilation

Hyperemia—increase blood flow in the area

Increase in capillary permeability—plasma proteins to move into the interstitial space

Chemotaxis to attract cells of the immune system

99
Q

5 Local Effects of Inflammation

A

Redness and warmth

Swelling (edema)

Pain

Loss of function

Exudate

100
Q

Local Effect of Inflammation that

Caused by increased blood flow to damaged area (vasodilation)

A

Redness and warmth

101
Q

Local Effect of Inflammation that

Shift of protein and fluid into the interstitial space(capillary permeability increased)

A

Swelling (edema)

102
Q

Local Effect of Inflammation that

Increased pressure of fluid on nerves; release of chemical mediators (e.g., bradykinins)

A

Pain

103
Q

Local Effect of Inflammation that

May develop if cells lack nutrients; edema may interfere with movement.

A

Loss of function

104
Q

Local Effect of Inflammation that

Collection of interstitial fluid formed in the inflamed area.

A

Exudate

105
Q

3 Systemic Effects of Inflammation

A

Mild fever (pyrexia)

Leukocytosis (increased white blood cells in the blood)

Increased plasma protein synthesis

106
Q

Potential Complication of Inflammation

Follows acute episode of inflammation when the cause is not removed.

A

Infection ( Local / Systemic)

107
Q

type of inflammation that

Less swelling and exudate

A

Chronic Inflammation

108
Q

type of inflammation that

Presence of more lymphocytes, macrophages, and fibroblasts

A

Chronic Inflammation

109
Q

type of inflammation that

Continued tissue destruction

A

Chronic Inflammation

110
Q

type of inflammation that

More fibrous scar tissue

Granuloma may develop around foreign object

A

Chronic Inflammation

111
Q

type of inflammation that

Potential Complications
Deep ulcers may result from severe or prolonged inflammation

Cell necrosis and lack of cell regeneration that causes erosion of the tissue

Can lead to complications such as perforation of viscera

Extensive scar tissue formation

A

Chronic Inflammation

112
Q

Occur in health care facilities

Hospitals, nursing homes, physician’s offices, dental offices

10% to 15% of patients acquire an infection in the hospital because of:

A

Nosocomial Infections

113
Q

Capability of a microbe to cause disease

A

Pathogenicity

114
Q

Degree of pathogenicity

A

Virulence

115
Q

9 Factors That Decrease Host Resistance

A

Age (infants and older adults)

Pregnancy

Genetic susceptibility

Immunodeficiency

Malnutrition

Chronic disease

Severe physical or emotional stress

Inflammation or trauma

Impaired inflammatory responses

116
Q

6 host resistance

A

intact skin and mucous membrane

body secretions- stomach acid, tears

nonspecific phagocytosis

effective inflammatory response

absence of disease

effective immune system interferon production

117
Q

the microbe causing the infection

A

Agent:

118
Q

Environmental source such as contaminated soil

Infected person or animal

Person may carry the agent and show no signs of disease

Person or animal may show signs and symptoms of disease

A

Reservoir:

119
Q

means whereby the agent leaves the reservoir

A

Portal of exit

120
Q

method whereby the agent reaches a new susceptible host

Air; Water; Direct contact; Food

A

Mode of transmission:

121
Q

access to new host

A

Portal of entry

122
Q

Mode of Transmission that

Touching infectious lesion, sexual activity

Contact with infected blood or bodily secretions

A

Direct contact

123
Q

Mode of Transmission that

Contaminated hand or food

Fomite—inanimate object

A

Indirect contact

124
Q

Mode of Transmission that

Respiratory or salivary secretions are expelled from infected individual

A

Droplet transmission

125
Q

Mode of Transmission that

Involve small particles from the respiratory tract, suspended in air and can travel farther than droplets

A

Aerosol transmission

126
Q

Mode of Transmission that

Insect or animal is an intermediate host

A

Vector-borne

127
Q

Infection Stage of Development period where

Time between entry of organism into the body and appearance of clinical signs of disease

Vary considerable with different organisms

A

Incubation period

128
Q

Infection Stage of Development period where

Fatigue, loss of appetite, headache

Nonspecific—“coming down with something”

More evident in some infections than others

A

Prodromal period

129
Q

Infection Stage of Development period where

Infectious disease develops fully

A

Acute period

130
Q

2 local signs of infection

A

Pain, swelling, redness, warmth

Lymphadenopathy-swollen and tender lymph nodes

131
Q

2 systemic signs of infection

A

Fever

Leukocytosis

Increase neutrophils: acute infections

Others: fatigue, weakness, headache, nausea

132
Q

2 methods of diagnosing infection

A

Culture and staining techniques

Blood tests

133
Q

blood test for diagnosing infection where

Variations in numbers of leukocytes

bacterial infection

A

Leukocytosis

134
Q

blood test for diagnosing infection where

Variations in numbers of leukocytes

viral infection

A

Leukopenia

135
Q

immune system cells that

Initiation of immune response, engulf foreign material

A

Macrophages:

136
Q

immune system cells that

One of leukocyte from bone marrow

A

Lymphocytes

137
Q

immune system cells that

destroy foreign cells, virus-infected cells, and cancer cells

A

Natural killer cell

138
Q

Types of Immunity that

Antibodies or immunoglobulins are produced to protect the body.

A

Humoral immunity:

139
Q

Types of Immunity that

Lymphocytes are programmed to directly destroy the invading antigens

A

Cell-mediated immunity (CMI):

140
Q

2 Nonspecific defense mechanism of the immune response

A

Phagocytosis

Inflammation response

141
Q

type of Immunity that

Species-specific

A

Natural immunity

142
Q

type of Immunity that

Gene-specific

Related to ethnicity

A

Innate immunity

143
Q

type of Immunity that

Natural exposure to antigen

Development of antibodies

A

Active natural immunity

144
Q

type of Immunity that

Antigen purposefully introduced to body

Stimulation of antibody production

Immunization

Booster immunization

A

Active artificial immunity

145
Q

type of Immunity that

Injection of antibodies

Short-term protection

A

Passive artificial immunity

146
Q

type of Immunity that

IgG transferred from mother to fetus:
Across placenta
Through breast milk

Protection of infant for the first few months of life or until weaned

A

Passive natural immunity

147
Q

type of immune response stage that
First exposure to antigen

1 to 2 weeks before antibody titer reaches efficacy

A

Primary response

148
Q

type of immune response stage that
Repeat exposure to the same antigen

More rapid response, with efficacy in 1 to 3 days

A

Secondary response

149
Q

Partial or total loss of one or more immune system components

Increased risk of infection and cancer

A

Immunodeficiency

150
Q

in Immunodeficiency

Primary deficiencies are caused by

A

developmental failure

151
Q

3 effects of Immunodeficiency

A

Predisposition to the development of opportunistic infections

Usually difficult to treat because of immunodeficiency

Prophylactic antimicrobial drugs may be used prior to invasive procedures.

152
Q

type of Hypersensitivity that

—allergic reactions

IgE mediated
IgE bound to mast cells; histamine release

Against environmental antigens (allergens)

A

Type I hypersensitivity

153
Q

type of Hypersensitivity that

Tissue specific

Specific cell or tissue (tissue-specific antigens) is the target of an immune response

IgG or IgM reacts with antigen on cell–complement activated

A

Type II: Cytotoxic Hypersensitivity

154
Q

type of Hypersensitivity that

Immune complex mediated

Antigen combines with antibody forms immune complexes, deposited in tissue or blood vessel walls

A

Type III: Immune Complex Hypersensitivity

155
Q

type of Hypersensitivity that

Cell-Mediated

Antigen binds to T-lymphocyte; sensitized lymphocyte releases lymphokines

A

Type IV: Cell-Mediated or Delayed Hypersensitivity

156
Q

type of Hypersensitivity that has the effects

Immediate inflammation and pruritus

A

Type I hypersensitivity

157
Q

type of Hypersensitivity that has the effects

Cell lysis and phagocytosis

A

Type II: Cytotoxic Hypersensitivity

158
Q

type of Hypersensitivity that has the effects

Inflammation, tissue destruction, vasculitis

A

Type III: Immune Complex Hypersensitivity

159
Q

type of Hypersensitivity that has the effects

Delayed inflammation

A

Type IV: Cell-Mediated or Delayed Hypersensitivity

160
Q

2 Hypersensitivity Reaction complication

A

Anaphylaxis

Anaphylactic Shock

161
Q

3 Systemic hypersensitivity reactions

A

Decreased blood pressure caused by release of histamine

Airway obstruction

Severe hypoxia

162
Q

Anemia causes a reduction in _________ transport.

A

oxygen

163
Q

Basic problem with anemia is __________deficit

A

hemoglobin

164
Q

5 General signs of anemia

A
Fatigue
pallor (pale face),
dyspnea
tachycardia
Decreased regeneration of epithelial cells
165
Q

4 Iron Deficiency Anemia Etiology

A

Dietary intake of iron below minimum requirement

Chronic blood loss

Impaired duodenal absorption of iron

Severe liver disease: iron absorption/storage

166
Q

Iron Deficiency Anemia Sign and Symptoms

A

Spoon shaped (concave) and ridged nails, brittle hair

General signs of anemias
Pallor, fatigue, lethargy, and CNS stimulation (hypoxia)

167
Q

Vitamin B12 Deficiency

A

Pernicious Anemia:

168
Q

Pernicious Anemia: Basic problem is lack of ______

A

intrinsic factor

169
Q

Pernicious Anemia 3 Etiology

A

Dietary insufficiency

Malabsorption

Surgery, such as gastrectomy

170
Q

4 Pernicious Anemia Sign and Symptoms

A

General signs of anemia

Tongue is typically enlarged, red, sore, and shiny.

Digestive discomfort, often with nausea and diarrhea

Feeling of pins and needles, tingling in limbs

171
Q

Vitamin B12 is needed for the function and maintenance of

A

neurons.

172
Q

Impairment or failure of bone marrow leading to loss of stem cells and pancytopenia.

A

Aplastic Anemia

173
Q

5 Aplastic Anemia Etiology

A

Myelotoxins: Radiation, industrial chemicals, drugs

174
Q

Aplastic Anemia 4 Sign and Symptoms

A

Blood counts indicate pancytopenia.

Anemia (pallor, weakness, and dyspnea)

Leukopenia (recurrent infection)

Thrombocytopenia (petechiae)

175
Q

Genetic condition

Autosomal recessive disorder

More common in individuals of African ancestry

A

Sickle Cell Anemia

176
Q

Sickle cell crisis occurs whenever _______ levels are lowered.

A

oxygen

177
Q

4 Sign and symptoms : Sickle Cell Anemia

A

General sign of anemia (Pallor, weakness, tachycardia, dyspnea)

Severe pain because of ischemia of tissues and infarction

Jaundice–hyperbilirubinemia

**Acute symptom of vaso-occlusive/painful crisis

178
Q

Sickle-shaped cells have shorter lifespan—anemia

Sickle cell hemoglobin leads to multiple infarctions

Abnormal hemoglobin (HbS)

A

Sickle Cell Anemia

179
Q

General term for all types of arterial changes

A

Arteriosclerosis

180
Q

Degenerative changes in small arteries and arterioles

Loss of elasticity

Lumen gradually narrows and may become obstructed

Cause of increased BP

A

Arteriosclerosis

181
Q

3 Risk Factors for Atherosclerosis

Nonmodifiable

A

Age
Gender
Genetic or familial factors

182
Q

6 Risk Factors for Atherosclerosis

modifiable

A

Obesity or diet high in cholesterol and animal fat
Cigarette smoking
Sedentary lifestyle
Diabetes mellitus
Poorly controlled hypertension
Combination of oral contraceptives and smoking

183
Q

Occurs when there is a deficit of oxygen to meet myocardial needs

A

Angina Pectoris

184
Q

3 Etiology of Angina Pectoris

A

Insufficient myocardial blood supply

Increased demands (tachycardia)

Precipitating factors of angina attacks

185
Q

Sign and symptoms for what cardiovascualr disorder

Recurrent, intermittent brief episodes of substernal chest pain

Triggered by physical or emotional stress

Attacks vary in severity and duration but become more frequent and longer as disease progresses.

A

Angina Pectoris

186
Q

occurs when a coronary artery is totally obstructed, leading to prolonged ischemia and cell death, or infarction, of the heart wall.

A

Myocardial Infarction (heart attack)

187
Q

Common cause: atherosclerosis (thrombus)

The heart muscle becomes necrotic, and an area of injury, inflammation, and scar formation

Specific enzymes (troponin) appear in the blood

A

Myocardial Infarction (heart attack)

188
Q

Signs and symptoms of this cardiovascular disorder

Pain: Sudden substernal chest pain that radiates to the left arm, shoulder, jaw, or neck is the hallmark of myocardial infarction.

Pallor and diaphoresis, nausea, dizziness and weakness, and dyspnea

Marked anxiety and fear

Hypotension

Pulse is rapid and weak as cardiac output decreases and shock develops.

Low-grade fever

A

Myocardial Infarction (heart attack)

189
Q

3 complications of Myocardial Infarction

A

Sudden death: cardiac Dysrhythmias
Cardiogenic shock
Congestive heart failure

190
Q

Heart is unable to pump out sufficient blood to meet metabolic demands of the body.

A

Congestive Heart Failure

191
Q

3 Compensation mechanisms of Congestive Heart Failure

A

Increase renin aldosterone secretion

CNS response

Chamber of heart tend to dilate and cardiac muscle becomes hypertrophied

192
Q

2 Pathophysiological effects of Congestive Heart Failure

A

Cardiac output or stroke volume decreases.

Backup and congestion develop

193
Q

3 Congestive Heart Failure Etiology

A

Infarction
Coronary artery disease, hypertension
Pulmonary disease

194
Q

Sign and symptoms: cardiovascular disorder

Forward effects (similar with failure on either side)

Decreased blood supply to tissues, general hypoxia

Fatigue and weakness

Dyspnea and shortness of breath

Compensation mechanisms

Tachycardia, cutaneous and visceral vasoconstriction, daytime oliguria

A

Congestive Heart Failure

195
Q

signs and symptoms: cardiovascular disorder

Left ventricle doesn’t empty, backup effects of left-sided failure, pulmonary congestion

Dyspnea and orthopnea

Develop as fluid accumulates in the lungs

Cough

Associated with fluid irritating the respiratory passages

Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea

Indicates the presence of acute pulmonary edema

Usually develops during sleep

Excess fluid in lungs frequently leads to infections such as pneumonia.

A

left sided Congestive Heart Failure

196
Q

signs and symptoms: cadiovascular disorder

Right ventricle weakens–systemic backup

Dependent edema in feet, legs, or buttocks

Increased pressure in jugular veins leads to distention.

Hepatomegaly and splenomegaly

Ascites

Complication when fluid accumulates in peritoneal cavity

Marked abdominal distention

Acute right-sided failure

Flushed face, distended neck veins, headache, visual disturbances

A

right sided Congestive Heart Failure

197
Q

High blood pressure
Common
May occur in any age group
More common in individuals of African ancestry

A

Hypertension

198
Q

Decreased blood flow through the kidneys, leading to increased renin, angiotensin, and aldosterone secretion

A

Hypertension

199
Q

type of Hypertension that

Blood pressure consistently above 140/90 mm Hg (adjusted for age)

Increase in arteriolar vasoconstriction

A

Primary: Essential hypertension

200
Q

type of Hypertension that

Decreased blood flow through the kidneys, leading to increased renin, angiotensin, and aldosterone secretion (HTN continue to increase)

Over long period of time—damage to arterial walls—decrease blood supply–Ischemia and necrosis of tissues, with loss of function

A

Primary: Essential hypertension

201
Q

type of Hypertension that

The areas most frequently damaged by elevated pressure are
Kidneys, cardiovascular, brain, and retina.

A

Primary: Essential hypertension

202
Q

Localized dilation and weakening of arterial wall

Develops from a defect in the medial laye

A

Aortic Aneurysm

203
Q

Aortic Aneurysm etiology

A

Atherosclerosis, trauma, HTN

Others: syphilis and other infections, congenital defects

204
Q

Signs and symptoms cardiovascular disorder

Frequently asymptomatic until they become large or rupture

Rupture may lead to moderate bleeding but usually causes severe hemorrhage and death.

Bruit may be heard on auscultation.

Abdominal aneurysms are sometimes detected as palpable pulsating masses with bruits (abnormal sounds).

A

Aortic Aneurysm

205
Q

Obstructive lung disese where

Inherited (genetic) disorder
Seven chromosome, autosomal recessive disorder

A

Cystic Fibrosis

206
Q

Obstructive lung disese where

Thick secretion, Tenacious mucus from exocrine glands

A

Cystic Fibrosis

207
Q

Obstructive lung disese where

Primary effects seen in lungs and pancreas

A

Cystic Fibrosis

208
Q

Obstructive lung disese where

Mucus obstructs airflow in bronchioles and small bronchi.

Permanent damage to bronchial walls

A

Cystic Fibrosis

209
Q

Cystic Fibrosis Infections in the lungs are common due to what two factors

A

stagnant mucus is an excellent medium for bacterial to grow

Commonly caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus

210
Q

Cystic Fibrosis effecs the Digestive tract by what 2 things

A

Meconium ileus in newborns

Small intestine of neonate is blocked by mucous at birth, preventing the excretion of meconium.

211
Q

Cystic Fibrosis effecs Blockage of pancreatic ducts and bile ducts by

A

Malabsorption and malnutrition

212
Q

Most conclusive test for diagnosis of Cystic Fibrosis

A

Sweat glands

213
Q

5 Signs and symptoms of___________

Meconium ileus may occur at birth.

Salty skin: sweat test

Signs of malabsorption: steatorrhea, abdominal distention

Chronic cough and frequent respiratory infections

Failure to meet normal growth milestones

A

Cystic Fibrosis

214
Q

type of Asthma where

Occurs in persons with hypersensitive or hyperresponsive airways

A

Bronchial obstruction

215
Q

type of Asthma where

Acute episodes triggered by type I hypersensitivity reactions

Antigen react with immunoglobulin E (IgE)

A

Extrinsic asthma

216
Q

type of Asthma where

Onset during adulthood

Hyperresponsive tissue in airway initiates attack.

A

Intrinsic asthma

217
Q

4 Pathophysiological effects of asthma

A

Inflammation of the mucosa with edema

Bronchoconstriction

Increased secretion of thick mucus

Changes create obstructed airways, partial or total.

218
Q

6 signs and symptoms of asthma

A

Cough, marked dyspnea, tight feeling in chest

Wheezing

thick or sticky mucus

Hypoxia, tachycardia

Respiratory alkalosis/acidosis

Severe respiratory distress/ respiratory failure

219
Q

Breakdown of alveolar wall,

A

Emphysema

220
Q

Emphysema Leads to large, permanently inflated _____ air spaces

A

alveolar

221
Q

Emphysema leads to Fibrosis and thickening of the _____________

A

bronchial walls

222
Q

Emphysema leads to Progressive difficulty with ________

A

expiration

223
Q

Advanced emphysema and loss of tissue lead to

what 5 things

A

Pneumothorax

Hypercapnia

Hypoxia becomes driving force of respiration

Frequent infections

Pulmonary hypertension and cor pulmonale may develop in late stage

224
Q

Emphysema Etiology

A

Smoking or genetic factors

225
Q

Emphysema 5 Signs and symptoms

A

Dyspnea

Hyperventilation with prolonged expiratory phase

Development of barrel chest

Anorexia, fatigue, and weight loss

Clubbed fingers

226
Q

2 Emphysema Diagnostic tests

A

Chest radiography and pulmonary function tests

227
Q

this leads to

Overinflation of the lungs

increased anterior-posterior diameter of thorax (barrel chest

A

Emphysema

228
Q

Significant change in bronchi

Inflammation, obstruction, repeated infection, chronic coughing

A

Chronic Bronchitis

229
Q

Chronic Bronchitis Etiology

A

Constant irritation from smoking or exposure to inhaled irritants

230
Q

4 signs and symptoms of Chronic Bronchitis

A

Constant productive cough, tachypnea and shortness of breath

Frequent thick and purulent secretions

Hypoxia, cyanosis, hypercapnia—Caused by airway obstruction

Polycythemia, weight loss, signs of cor pulmonale possible

231
Q

is secondary to a number of renal diseases as well as to a variety of systemic disorders(e.g., systemic lupus erythematosus, exposure to toxins or drugs.

A

The nephrotic syndrome

232
Q

Caused by glomerular injury-abnormality in the glomerular capillaries

A

The nephrotic syndrome

233
Q

defined as the presence of proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia and peripheral edema.

A

The nephrotic syndrome

234
Q

The nephrotic syndrome 3 Sign and symptoms

A
  • Marked proteinuria
  • Massive edema, gain weight
  • hyperlipidemia
235
Q

Acute kidney injury (AKI), acute decline glomerular filtration rate (GFR) from baseline, with or without oliguria ( reduced urine output) /anuria (no urine output) .

A

Acute Renal Failure

236
Q

3 signs and symptoms for Acute Renal Failure

A

.Elevated BUN/Creatinine
•Hyperkalemia
•Metabolic acidosis

237
Q

Type of Acute Renal Failure where

: failure due to impaired renal perfusion

•Severe, prolonged circulatory shock or heart failure

A

Prerenal

238
Q

Type of Acute Renal Failure where

: failure due to direct injury to renal parenchyma

  • Nephrotoxins: Drugs, chemicals, or toxins
  • Acute bilateral kidney diseases
A

:Intrinsic

239
Q

Type of Acute Renal Failure where

: failure due to obstruction of urinary flow

  • Mechanical obstruction (occasionally)
  • Calculi, blood clots, tumors: block urine flow beyond kidney
A

Postrenal

240
Q

Gradual irreversible destruction of the kidneys over a long period of time

  • Asymptomatic in early stages
  • Associated with HTN, diabetes, long-term exposure to nephrotoxins, etc.
A

Chronic Renal Failure

241
Q

Pathophysiology
•Decreased renal reserve(around 60% nephrons lost)

  • Decrease in GFR
  • Renal insufficiency (around 75% nephrons loss)
  • Decreased GFR to about 20% of normal
  • End-stage renal failure (more than 90% nephrons lost)
  • Negligible GFR
A

Chronic Renal Failure

242
Q

5 Chronic Renal Failure signs and symptoms

A

Oliguria

  • Electrolyte imbalance (usually hyponatremia and hyperkalemia occur)
  • GFR falls, plasma creatinine increases
  • metabolic acidosis
  • Anemia
243
Q

Inflammation of the liver

Cell injury results in inflammation and necrosis in the liver.

Liver is edematous and tender.

A

Hepatitis

244
Q

Hepatitis cause

A

Idiopathic (Fatty liver), Local infection (viral hepatitis) , or Infection elsewhere in body , or chemical or drug toxicity (hepatotoxicity)

245
Q

Type of Viral Hepatitis (P465) where

  • Transmission: fecal-oral route
  • No carrier or chronic state
  • Vaccine available for travelers
A

:Hepatitis A (HAV)

246
Q

Type of Viral Hepatitis (P465) where

  • Transmission: blood and body fluid
  • Carrier and Chronic
  • Vaccine available, routinely given to children
  • Carrier: asymptomatic but contagious
A

:Hepatitis B (HBV)

247
Q

Type of Viral Hepatitis (P465) where

  • Transmission: blood and body fluid
  • Chronic
A

:Hepatitis D (HDV)

248
Q

Type of Viral Hepatitis (P465) where

  • Transmitted by oral-fecal route
  • No chronic or carrier state
A

:Hepatitis E (HEV)

249
Q

Type of Viral Hepatitis (P465) where

Transmission: Blood and body fluid

•Carrier and chronic

A

Hepatitis C (HCV)

250
Q

Viral Hepatitis stage where

  • Fatigue and malaise, Anorexia and nausea,
  • General muscle aching
A

:Preicteric stage

251
Q

Viral Hepatitis stage where

  • Stools light in color, urine becomes darker
  • Liver tender and enlarged, mild aching pain
A

:Icteric stage: Onset of jaundice

252
Q

Viral Hepatitis stage where

  • Reductions in signs
  • Weakness persists for weeks
A

Posticteric stage—recovery stage

253
Q

Progressive destruction of the liver tissue, when 80-90% of the liver has been destroyed. (Irreversible)

  • Extensive diffuse fibrosis and loss of lobular organization
  • Degenerative changes may be asymptomatic until disease is well advanced.
A

Cirrhosis

254
Q
  • Decreased removal and conjugation of bilirubin
  • Decreased production of blood-clotting factors and plasma albumin
  • Inadequate storage of iron and vitamin B12
  • Decreased inactivation of hormones (aldosterone and estrogen)
  • Decreased removal of toxic substances, such as ammonia leading to hepatic encephalopathy
  • Decreased production of bile
A

6 Cirrhosis Losses of liver cell functions

255
Q

inflammation of the pancreas

•Activate enzymes in the pancreas which digest the pancreatic tissue leading to massive inflammation, bleeding, and necrosis.

A

Acute Pancreatitis

256
Q

3 Etiology of Pancreatitis

A
  • Gallstones
  • Alcohol abuse
  • Sudden onset may follow intake of large meal or large amount of alcohol
257
Q

3 signs and symptoms of Pancreatitis

A

Severe mid epigastric pain radiating to the back

  • Nausea, vomiting, Low-grade fever until infection develops
  • Elevated serum amylase and lipase levels
258
Q

is an inflammation and infection in the vermiform appendix.

A

Appendicitis

259
Q

2 complications of Appendicitis

A
  • Perforation

* Peritonitis–rigid “boardlike” abdomen

260
Q

A mechanical disruption in the patency of GI tract, resulting in a combination of emesis, constipation, and abdominal pain.

A

Intestinal Obstruction

261
Q

•Result from tumors, adhesions, hernias, other tangible obstructions

A

Mechanical obstructions

262
Q
  • Result from impairment of peristalsis
  • Spinal cord injury
  • Paralytic ileus caused by toxins or electrolyte imbalance
A

Functional or adynamic obstructions

263
Q

4 signs and symptoms of Intestinal Obstruction

A
  • Abdominal pain
  • Vomiting and abdominal distention
  • No stool or gas passed
  • Hypovolemia and electrolyte imbalance—dehydration, weakness, confusion and shock
264
Q

3 complications with Intestinal Obstruction

A
  • Ischemia and necrosis
  • Perforation of the necrotic segment may occur.
  • Peritonitis–bacteremia, septicemia
265
Q

Degenerative—wear and tear joint disease

A

Osteoarthritis

266
Q

Articular cartilage is damaged.

Surface of cartilage becomes rough and worn

Joint space becomes narrower.

Secondary inflammation of surrounding tissue

A

Osteoarthritis

267
Q

Etiology
Primary form—weight-bearing, obesity, aging

Secondary form—follows trauma or repetitive use

Genetic factors thought to play a role

Weight-bearing joints most frequently affected but finger joints also involved

A

Osteoarthritis

268
Q

Signs and symptoms:

Aching pain with weight-bearing and movement

Joint movement is limited.

Predisposition to falls

Bony enlargement of distal interphalangeal joints–Heberden’s node

Crepitus

No systemic signs or changes in serum levels.

X ray evidence—joint changes

A

Osteoarthritis

269
Q

Also known as gouty arthritis

Results from deposits of uric acid and crystals in the joint, causing inflammation

Common location: digital joint

A

Gout

270
Q

Sign and symptoms :
Inflammation causes redness, swelling, and pain.
increase in serum uric acid levels

Risk factors:
Renal excretion is not adequate
Dietary factors: seafood, meat, and alcohol.
Others: cancer patients, obesity, insulin resistance, and hypertension

A

Gout

271
Q

___________ is caused by

Deficit of insulin or lack of response by cells to insuli

A

Diabetes mellitus

272
Q

Types of Diabetes that

Absolute deficit insulin

Autoimmune destruction of beta cells in pancreas

Acute onset in children and adolescents

A

Type 1

273
Q

Types of Diabetes that

Not linked to obesity

Genetic factors may play a role.

A

Type 1

274
Q

Types of Diabetes that

Caused by decreased production of insulin and/or increased resistance by body cells to insulin

Onset is slow and insidious, usually in those older than 50 years

A

Type 2

275
Q

Types of Diabetes that
Associated with obesity

Component of metabolic syndrome

A

Type 2

276
Q

Insulin deficit results in decreased transport and use of glucose in many cells—fatigue, polyphagia

Blood glucose levels rise—hyperglycemia

A

Diabetes Mellitus

277
Q
Progressive effects 
Diabetic ketoacidosis  (DKA) 

Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic Nonketotic Coma (HHNC)

A

Diabetes Mellitus

278
Q

Occurs in type 2 diabetes

Insidious in onset

Often occurs in older clients and assumed to be cognitive impairment

A

HHNK: Hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic

279
Q

5 Diabetes: Chronic Complications

A

Increased incidence of atherosclerosis

Microangiopathy

Macroangiopathy

Peripheral neuropathy

infection

280
Q

Related to autoimmune factor

Increase T3 and T4,

Hypermetabolism and increased stimulation of SNS

Toxic goiter

Exophthalmos

A

Hyperthyroidism (Graves’ disease)

281
Q

Signs and symptoms:

↑ metabolic rate: loss weight, heat intolerance,
↑ Stimulate SNS: palpitation, tachycardia, restless

A

Hyperthyroidism

282
Q

Etiology
Iodine deficit,
Hashimoto’s thyroiditis–Autoimmune disorder
Tumor, surgical removal or treatment of gland
Cretinism: hyposecretion of thyroid hormone during youth

A

Hypothyroidism

283
Q

Signs and symptoms:
↓ metabolic rate: gain weight, cold intolerance,
↓ SNS stimulation: bradycardia, lethargic

A

Hypothyroidism