Final Flashcards
(155 cards)
1
Q
Paivio’s Dual-Coding Theory, 1980’s
A
there are two ways of representing events
Logogens and Imagens
2
Q
Logogens
A
the units containing the information underlying our use of a word; components of the verbal system
Symbolic Code- Representational
3
Q
Imagens
A
the units containing information that generate mental images; components of the non-verbal system
Analogue Code- Perceptual
4
Q
Concreteness
A
the degree to which a word refers to something that can be experienced by the senses
correlated with imagery and may represent the same process
5
Q
Imagery
A
the ease with which something can elicit a mental image
a mental picture of a sounds
6
Q
Quillian’s Teachable Language Comprehender
A
Units- the nodes of the network that usually represent sets of objects; labelled by nouns
Properties- described by adjectives or verbs
Pointers- specify the relations
7
Q
Paivio, 1965- Research Related to DCT
A
4 groups each learned 16 pairs of words
either concrete-concrete, concrete-abstract, abstract-concrete, and abstract-abstract
concrete words are easier to remember because they can generate an image
8
Q
Fiebach and Friederici (2003) fMRI study (DCT and brain)
A
concrete and abstract words elicit different patterns of activity in the left hemisphere
concrete words do not elicit heightened activity in the right hemisphere
9
Q
Distinctiveness Hypothesis
A
the more distinctive an item, the easier it will be to remember
especially if it occurs alongside common items
10
Q
Von Restorff Effect
A
if one item in a set is different from the others then it is more likely to be recalled
11
Q
Special Places Strategy
A
choosing a storage place that others won’t think of
the problem is whether you can remember it later
12
Q
Winograd and Soloway, 1982 (Special Places Strategy)
A
Participants ranked the likelihood and memorability of sentences describing item-location relationships
they remembered ones ranked higher
13
Q
Synesthesia
A
the condition in which a stimulus appropriate to one sense triggers an experience appropriate to another sense
can impact how we form memories
cognitive dedifferentiation of sensory modalities
14
Q
Inducer
A
a cue that elicits a synesthetic experience
15
Q
Concurrent
A
the synesthetic response to a stimuli
16
Q
Strong Synesthetics
A
people who are susceptible to an inducer in one sensory modality producing a concurrent image in another sensory modality
17
Q
Weak Synesthetics
A
people who can appreciate cross-modal experiences without having a strong synesthetic experience
18
Q
Theories of Synesthesia
A
dedifferentiation- adult synesthesia occurs when the neuronal pruning process fails to run its course and what were supposed to be transient connection end up being permanent
19
Q
Cohen et al., 2009
A
show that the presence of hypnotically induced synesthesia
counters the dedifferentiation theory
20
Q
Eidetic Imagery
A
images projected on the external world that persist for a minute or more even after the stimulus is removed
cognitive dedifferentiation of imagery and perception
21
Q
Icon
A
a snapshot of the information contained in a visual stimulus that persists briefly
22
Q
Cognitive Dedifferentiation
A
fusion of perceptual processes that typically function independently
top down process
23
Q
Mental Rotation
A
imagining an object “in motion” and viewing it from different perspectives
tend to be carried out in the right hemisphere
24
Q
Shepard and Metzler, 1971
A
Showed participants two line drawings and asked them if they are the same
rotation on multiple axises takes longer than rotation on only one axis
25
Mental Folding
imagining an object "in motion" and how it is in motion to fold or change the shape of an object
uses both left and right hemispheres
26
Kosstyn et al., 1978
| Scanning Mental Images
participants memorized a map of an island with various landmarks
it took longer to scan between parts of the map that were farther apart
both objective and categorical distances were preserved
27
Images as Anticipation
| Shepard, 1978; Farrah, 1989
Participants were shown a grid and asked to imagine a superimposed letter on the grid
they were asked to identify if a dot probe was in the space covered by the letter
participants were quick and accurate at identifying ones in the letter
28
Chambers and Reisberg, 1985
| Images and Ambiguous Figures
mental images of ambiguous figures are not ambiguous
| images are not like perceptions- in your head you have two nonambigious images that you can switch between
29
Finke, Pinker and Farrah, 1989
| Emergent Properties
new properties that emerge when a mental image is made
30
Analog form of Representation Hypothesis
| Shepard
a mental image embodies the essential relationships of the thing it represents
it can also be used for discovering new relationships
31
Egocentric Perspective Transformations
requires imagining yourself moving about a scene while the objects in the environment remain still
uses mental imagery
finding objects above, below, and in front of you is faster than beside or behind you
32
Propositional Knowledge Hypothesis
| Anderson, 1983
the hypothesis that knowledge about the world is stored in memory in the form of propositions
proposition- a statement in which something is affirmed or denied
33
Controversy Concerning Mental Imagery and Propositions
If knowledge about the world is stored in memory in propositions, what roles to images have in cognitions
images are epiphenomenal, not essential for mind's functioning
images require more information to fully understand
34
Cognitive Maps
| Edward Tolman
information from the environment that is "worked over and elaborated... into a tentative, cognitive-like map... indicating routes and paths and environmental relationships" that determines our behaviour
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Concept (Classical Approach)
a grouping of certain events or categories by similarities and differences
all events in the concept share attributes with other instances
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Attributes
a quality of characteristic inherent in or ascribed to someone or something
attributes can take a number of values
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Values
characteristics of attributes
38
Conjunctive Concept
| Bruner et al., 1956
concepts that contain conjunction of attributes
A and B
tend to be prototypical of the concept
39
Disjunctive Concept
| Bruner et al., 1956
```
a concept in which either one or two more possible sets of attributes defines class membership
A or B
```
40
Relational Concept
| Bruner et al., 1956
relation between attributes determines the class into which an event will be assigned
41
Criterial/Critical Attribute
an attribute that is required in order for something to qualify as an instance of a concept
42
Positive Instance
an example that is an instance of a particular concept
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Negative Instance
an example that does not contain the right attributes of a particular concept
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Abstraction
the process of including recurrent attributes and excluding non-recurrent attributes
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Recurrent Attributes
an attribute that always occurs in an instance
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Non-recurrent Attributes
an attribute that occurs in some but not all instances of a concept
47
Selection Task
Concept Formation Task
Bruner et al., 1956
the P must select instances from those presented by the experimenter
the E gives feedback to the P after each instance is chosen
48
Conservative Focusing
concept formation strategy of actively formulating hypotheses and selecting instances to see if your hypotheses are correct by focusing on one and changing one attribute at a time
49
Focus Gambling
concept formulation strategy of selecting instances that vary from the first positive instance in more than one attribute
50
Simultaneous Scanning
strategy that keeps in mind all possible hypotheses and tries to eliminate as many as possible with each instance selection
51
Successive Scanning
concept formation strategy involves formulating a single hypothesis and testing it by selecting instance until the correct hypothesis emerges
52
Reception Task
Concept Formation Task
bruner et al., 1956
a concept formation task in which the instances presented to the P are chosen by the E
53
Wholist Trimming Strategy
P initially hypothesizes that all the attributes are members of the concept, and then exclude any that are shown otherwise
54
Partist Growing Strategy
P initially hypothesize that only some attributes are members of the concept
55
Cognitive Consciousness Hypothesis
implicit learning represents an evolutionarily primitive form of cognition
explicit learning appeared later in evolutionary history
56
Finite State Grammar
a deliberately oversimplified form of generative grammar, which generates sentences by working through word by word in a strictly linear fashion
57
Reber et al., 1967
used FSG to study implicit/explicit learning
Explicit group were told that the letter strings followed certain rules
Implicit group was told just to memorize the letter strings
explicit learners performed better
58
Dulany et al., 1984
participants in an implicit learning task can form hypotheses consciously but they are imperfect
59
Shanks et al., 2003;2004
some evidence that implicit learning is accompanied by awareness (as shown by P's implications of their confidence)
60
Wiggensteins Analysis of Concepts (1953)
some concepts have blurred edges and run into each other- together several instances of a concept form a family where there is no definable boundary
denied the existence of criterial attributes
61
Prototype
being representative of a pattern or category
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Cognitive Economy
our constant attempts to balance the tendency towards simplification and the necessity for differentiation
Optimization- min/max problem
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Vertical and Horiztonal Dimensions
used to organize concepts
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Vertical Dimensions
```
refers to the level of inclusiveness/generality of the category
Superordinate Level (furniture)
Basic Level (chair)
Subordinate Level (kitchen chair)
```
65
Horizontal Dimensions
distinguishes between concepts at the same level of inclusiveness
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Glenberg, 1997- Embodied Cognition
concepts are not disembodied, abstract representations of things
the role of cognition is to facilitate successful interactions with the environment
concepts = bridges between goals and environment
67
Goal-Derived Categories
a category invented for a specific purpose on a particular occasion
also have a graded structure
ability to think of an object both in basic and goal derived levels may be a sign of creative thinking
68
Graded Structure
describes a concept in which some members of the category are better than others and the boundaries are vague
69
Barsalou, 1999, 2003
| Perceptual Symbol Systems
aspects of perceptual memories that stand for events in the world and enter into all forms of symbolic activity
skills necessary to construct temporary categories (conceptualization) are rooted in perceptual experience
70
Perceptual Symbols
aspects of perceptual memories that function symbolically
71
Category-Specific Deficits
selective deficits in knowledge, resulting from brain damage
72
Sensory-Functional Theories
assume that knowledge of a specific category is located near the sensorimotor areas of the brain
73
Lakoff and Johnson, 1999
| Concepts as Metaphors
metaphor is not only a literary device, but it arises naturally as a result of connections between sensorimotor and other forms of experience
74
Primary Metaphor
a pairing of subjective experience and judgement with sensorimotor experience
75
Double-function words
words that refer to both physical and psychological properties
i.e. warmth
76
Folk Biology
refers to the concepts ordinary people to understand living things
77
Conceptual Module
```
responsible for domain specific knowledge
knowledge that is handled by a module dedicated exclusively to a particular subject
```
78
Folk Taxonomy
classification system composed of a stable hierarchy of groups
79
Farah and Rabinowitz (2003)
young man suffered brain damage immediately after birth, at age 16 has a normal IQ
asked to name pictures of living and non-living things
showed selective impairment of knowledge of living things
80
Sensory Memory
buffer system for stimuli received through the senses
| large capacity degenerates quickly
81
Iconic Memory
visual sensory memory
| upper limit of 1 second
82
Echoic Memory
auditory sensory memory
| upper limit of 2 seconds
83
Short Term Memory
receives information from both long term memory and sensory memory
84
Rehearsal
the process of maintaining information in short-term memory
85
Consolidation
the process through which memory traces are stabilized to form long term memories
86
Chunking
a strategy to increase the capacity of short-term memory by arranging elements in groups that can be easily remembered
87
Long Term Memory
information that is stored long term and can be brought back to STM for immediate use
Different Divisions
88
Working Memory
the system that pulls all the other memory systems together, allowing us to work with different types of information in a dynamic way
89
Four Subsystems of Working Memory
Central Executive
Phonological Loop
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
Episodic Buffer
90
Central Executive
coordinates information from 3 subsystems
91
Phonological loop
temporary store of linguistic information
92
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
temporary store of non-linguistic (visual) information
93
Episodic Buffer
the mechanism that moves information to and from long-term memory
94
Fluid Systems
cognitive processes that manipulate information but are unchanged by learning
4 Subsystems of working memory are fluid
95
Crystallized systems
cognitive systems capable of accumulating long-term knowledge
Visual Semantics
Episodic LTM
Language
96
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex
plays an integral part in monitoring and controlling alternative courses of action
important in working memory, esp. Central Executive
97
Declarative Memory
memory system that contains knowledge that can be stated
| Episodic and Semantic
98
Episodic Memory
deals with personal experience
develops out of semantic memory
doesn't develop to age 4-6 because it requires self-knowledge
99
Semantic Memory
deals with general knowledge
100
Non-declarative Memory
the memory system associated with behaviour that does not require conscious thought
101
Perceptual Representation System
a memory system containing very specific representations of events that is hypothesized to be responsible for priming effects
102
Priming
the unconscious process through which recognition of a particular item (probe or target) is facilitated by exposure to an identical or related item (prime)
103
Procedural Memory
the memory system concerned with knowing how to perform rote skills
104
Tacit Knowledge
knowing how to do something without being able to say exactly what it is you know
105
Butcher on the Bus Phenomenon
the feeling of knowing a person without being able to remember the circumstance of any previous meeting or anything else about him/her
106
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon
knowing you know something without being able to recall it
107
Generic Recall
Being able to recall parts and attributes without recalling the word itself
108
Spreading Activation
activation in a semantic (knowledge) network spreads from an activation node
the more active the node, the easier it is to process
109
Memory Trace
distinct, permanent copies of previous experiences/mental events
110
Reappearance Hypothesis
the hypothesis that the same memory can reappear, unchanged, again and again
111
Mystic Writing Pad Model
memory fragments accumulate and begin to overlap, so they become increasingly hard to read
112
Flashbulb Memory
vivid and detailed memory trace of significant events
113
Now Print! Theory
significant experiences are immediately photocopied and preserved in LTM and resistant to changes
114
Consolidation Theory
memory traces of an event are not fully formed immediately after the event, but take some time to consolidate
115
Retroactive Interference
a decline in the recall of one event as a result of another later event
116
Hippocampus
brain area crucial in consolidation of memory traces
117
Reconsolidation
the process whereby a memory trace is revised upon reactivation
118
Schema
an active mass of flexibly organized past reactions that provides an abstract and general setting that guides our behaviour
a standard that can be adjusted to fit changing circumstance
119
Four Processes of Memory (Schema Theories)
Selection of information
Abstraction of information (remembering the gist)
Interpretation of the info using existing info
Integration of info into the schema
120
Misinformation Effect
when misleading post-event information becomes integrated with the original information
121
Source-Monitoring Theory
people fail to distinguish between real and imagined events due to faulty source monitoring (i.e. failing to determine the source of the memory)
122
Encoding Specificity
the way in which something is retrieved from memory depends on the way it was stored in memory
123
Mood Dependent Recall
the hypothesis that mood congruence between learning and recall sessions should facilitate recall
124
Mood Congruence
the idea that mood might cause selective learning of affective material
125
Scripts
a) structure that describes an appropriate sequence of events in a particular context
b) a predestined stereotypical sequence of actions that defines a well known situation
126
Autobiographical Memory
episodic memories of events recalled in terms of the time in our lives when each one occured
127
Galton's Number
the number of autobiographical episodes from the preceding 20 years
approx 224
128
Childhood Amnesia
the general inability to retrieve episodic memories from before about the age of 3
129
The Memory Bump
an increase in the number of memories between the ages of 10 and 30
consequential life events occur in this time period which are easy to remember
130
Levels of Processing
Shallow Processing- focusing on basic physical characteristics
Deep processing- understand the meaning of information
131
Elaboration
the process of adding to or enriching information by relating it to other information
132
Distinctiveness
the precision with which an item is encoded
133
Egocentric Frames of Reference
using information available from our current perspective to orient ourselves
134
Path integration
the process whereby our position in relation to an important location is continuously updated as we move through the environment
135
Mental model theory
the theory that we construct a mental model of a given situation, on the basis of which we understand, reason, and draw conclusions about it
136
auditory imagery
the experience of sound in your mind that is not caused by stimulation of the receptive cells in your ears
137
misaligned hierarchies
judgements made at one level suggest one conclusion while judgements made at another level suggest a constraining conclusion
138
commitment heuristic
a strategy in which we commit ourselves to the belief that something is true when it is only likely to be true
139
method of opposition
pitting conscious (explicit) and unconscious (implicit) tendencies against each other
140
lexical decision task
a task requiring a participant to determine whether a presented string of letters is a word or not
141
involuntary semantic memory "mind popping"
a semantic memory that pops into your mind without episodic context
142
excitatory and inhibitory connections
connections that either enhance or diminish the associations between the units that make up a neural network
143
associative deficit hypothesis
the hypothesis that older adults have a deficiency in creating and retrieving links between single units of information
144
Korsakoff's syndrome
a form of amnesia affecting the ability to form new memories
| attributed to thiamine deficiency and often (though not exclusively) seen in chronic alcoholics
145
disconnection syndrome
amnesic patients may be able to acquire new information an yet not be aware that learning has taken place
146
prospective memory
the intention to remember to do something at some future time
147
errorless learning
participants are taught in such a way that they never have the opportinute to make mistakes
used with Alzheimers patients
148
Method of vanishing cues
used with amnesiac patients
| add cues until the P can guess the answer and then take them away again so the P can think of it on their own
149
rationalization
the attempt to make memory as coherent and sensible as possible
150
Proust effect
the power of odours as autobiographical memory cues
151
forgetting curb
Ebbinghaus
the rate at which information is forgotten is the greatest immediately after information has been acquired and declines more gradually over time
152
Jost's law of forgetting
of two memory traces of equal strength, the younger trace will decay over time
153
Ribot's law of retrograde amnesia
older memories are less likely to be lost as a result of brain damage than newer memories
154
law of progressions and pathologies
last in first out principle
| the last system to emerge is the first to show the effects of degeneration
155
permastore
Bahrick's term for the state of relative permanence in which he found that some kinds of memory can be retained over very long periods of time
