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Cognitive Psychology > Unit Exam 1 > Flashcards

Unit Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Define Cognition

A

the mental actions or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience and the senses
mental action of knowing or how we come to know

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2
Q

Early Study of Cognition- Late 1950’s-1960’s

A

rapid progression
methods included traditional psychophysics and experimental psychology
the study of psychology started to become a scientific pursuit

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3
Q

Watson and Skinner

A

behavioural psychologists

predecessors to cognitive psychology

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4
Q

Traditional psychophysics

A

relating physical stimuli with your perception; often through introspection

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5
Q

Early Study of Cognition- Mid 1970’s

A

fuelled by computational analysis and marked arrival of early cognitive science

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6
Q

Computational analysis

A

demonstrating thoughts and behaviours through mathematical concepts

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7
Q

Early Study of Cognition- Mid 1980’s

A

incorporated evidence from neuropsychology and animal neurophysiology
utilizes an ever increasing array of imaging techniques
studying areas of the brain

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8
Q

Cognitive Psychology

A

the world contains information for humans to process
humans are active selectors of information, not passive receivers
we can study how the brain chooses and processes information
process of developing our metacognition

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9
Q

Bit- binary digit

A

the most basic unit of information

the quantification of the amount of information provided by the occurrence of an event

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10
Q

Information Theory

A

borrowed from communication engineers
posits that the information provided in a message is inversely related to its probability of occurrence
the less likely something is, the more information is conveys
our brain automatically latches to things that give us more information

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11
Q

Limitations on Information Processing

A

Time Limitation

Capacity Limitation

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12
Q

Time Limitation on Information Processing

A

the amount of time it takes for information to be processed in the nervous system
physiological limit is 100m/s
Hycks (1952) and Hyman (1953)

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13
Q

Hycks (1952) and Hyman (1953)

A

participants have to give verbal or key-press responses to a visual signal
Response time increase
A) as the number of signals increased (increased uncertainty)
B) less frequent and less probable signals need more processing
participants needed more time to process under these circumstances

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14
Q

Capacity Limitation on Information Processing

A

The amount of information that the nervous system can process within a fixed period of time
Webster and Thompson (1953)

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15
Q

Webster and Thompson (1953)

A

participants listened to two simultaneous messages, consisting of call signals (from a set of 10) followed by a three word message (from a set of 1152)
participants could identify both call signals, but only one word message
processing capacity is limited by the amount of information

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16
Q

Selective attention

A

humans are active selectors of all the information around us

we are not parallel processors; we cannot process simultaneously

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17
Q

Broadbent’s Filter Model- 1958

Information Processing

A

borrowed from information communication engineers
information processing is restricted by channel capacity- the maximum amount of information that can be transmitted by an information processing device
The brain selects information to process and other information remains in the short term memory buffer where it will decay over time

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18
Q

Broadbent Filter Model task

A

presented participants with 3 two-digit pairs, one digit being presented to each ear
participants had a higher success rate when digits were recalled one ear at a time rather than in simultaneous pairs
ears are sub channels; switching between accepting information from different channels decreases accuracy

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19
Q

Waugh and Norman’s Model of Information Processing (1965)

A 
Primary memory (what we are aware of in the immediately present moment) has an unlimited capacity but without rehearsal is will degrade
With rehearsal it can pass to secondary memory (knowledge acquired at a previous time that is stored indefinitely)
Studied this through the Brown-Peterson Task
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20
Q

Brown-Peterson Task

A

how distinction is drawn between primary and secondary memory
participants were given something to remember, then asked to count backwards by 3 for a specified number of times
recall memory decreased as the distractor duration increased

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21
Q

Ecological Approach to research

A

using the richness of information provided by the natural environment
the meaning of objects and events can be perceived in terms of their affordances
Affordances- the potential functions or uses of stimuli in the real world; not innate but learned through information pick up

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22
Q

Gibson (1950-1966)

A

argued for the use of the ecological approach
we act naturally with given objects and their affordances
this is contrary to lab experiments which use stimuli without affordances

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23
Q

Information Pick Up

A

the process whereby we perceive information directly

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24
Q

Neisser’s Cyclical Model of Cognition (1976)

A

Objects in the environment provide us with information
Schema- patterns of thought about things in our world, that are constantly changing
Our observations of objects modify our schemas, which direct how we explore the world, which then impacts how we see objects

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25
Q

Kingstone, Smilek, and Eastwood (2008)- Cognitive Ethology

A

cognitive processed depend on the specific situational context of the subject
research suggests that what we discover about our cognitive processes in the lab may not be true in the real world

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26
Q

Metacognition

A

the knowledge people have about the way that cognition processes work
thinking about thinking

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27
Q

Localization of Function

A

the theory that there is a direct correspondence between specific cognitive functions and specific parts of the brain

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28
Q

Phrenology

A

the study of the shape, size, and protrusions of the cranium in an attempt to discover the relationship between parts of the brain and various mental activities and abilities

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29
Q

Gall and Spurzheim (Late 1700’s)

A

used phrenology to infer intellectual strengths and weaknesses
the more highly developed a function, the bigger the area of the brain, cause protrusions on the scalp

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30
Q

Franz (1912)

A

opposed to localization of function
used ablation studies to see if damaging specific areas results loss of abilities
Conclusion: mental processes are due to the activity of the brain as a whole, not individual parts

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31
Q

Lashley (1929)

A

Found there was little to no impact on behaviour if brain damage was minimal
suggested that learning and memory was directly proportional to the extent of brain damage rather than location
However, the exception to this was the specific motor and sensory cortices
Two Laws
Law of Mass Action
Law of Equipotentiality

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32
Q

Law of Mass Action

A

learning and memory depend on the total mass of brain tissue remaining rather than the properties of the individual cells

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33
Q

Law of Equipotentiality

A

despite the fact that certain areas of the brain may be specialized to perform specific functions, within limits, any part of the area can do the job of any other part of that same area in the brain

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34
Q

Cognitive Neuroscience

A

multidisciplinary study that strives to arrive at an integrated understanding of the brain

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35
Q

Consciousness

A

what we are aware of at any given point

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36
Q

Mind

A

include consciousness, as well as processes that occur outside of awareness

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37
Q

Interactionism

A

Descartes
the mind and brain are separate entities that interact and influence each other
dualistic

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38
Q

Epiphenomenalism

A

the mind is a by product of the brain functioning

the mind can play no causal role in determining behaviour, since it is only phenomenon of the brain

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39
Q

Parallelism

A

the mind and brain are two aspects of the same reality, and they operate in parallel
every event in the mind has a corresponding event in the brain

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40
Q

Isomorphism

A

traced back to Gestalt psychology
consciousness tends to be organized into a coherent whole
experience and its corresponding brain pattern share the same pattern in all their structural characteristics
Think optical illusions: you can see different things, each thing corresponds to an all or none brain pattern

41
Q

Animal Models

A

many neuroimaging techniques are too invasive to use on human participants
there is a limit to how much can be related back to the human mind
ethical issues- if there is any other way to study behaviour it must be used

42
Q

Study of Brain Injury

A

it is possible to relate symptoms to the parts of the brain that have been damaged
not foolproof

43
Q

Paul Broca

A

Broca’s Area- located near the motor cortex, area of speech production
Broca’s Aphasia- a deficit in the ability to produce speech as a result of damage to Broca’s area (comprehension intact, production comprimised)

44
Q

Karl Wernicke

A

Wernicke’s area- located in the association cortex, where words get meaning
Wernicke’s Aphasia- language comprehension is compromised, and the individual produces incoherent speech (real words but wrong grammar)

45
Q

Surgical Intervention

A

By removing or otherwise tampering with certain areas in the brain, you can solve certain behavioural or other problems

46
Q

Interhemispheric Transfer

A

communication between the hemispheres of the brain, enabled in large part by the corpus callosum

47
Q

Roger Sperry (1913-1994)

A

received the Nobel Prize in 1981 for his research on inter hemispheric transfer
left hemisphere- analytical
right hemisphere- holistic tasks
later became clear that there is no simple division of labour

48
Q

Sperry’s Nature of Consciousness

A

Consciousness is an emergent property, not reducible to nor a product of other feature of the brain
It also has emergent causation- it can influence lower level functions
thus, the mind is supervenient- mental states are determined by constituent neuronal event while they are exerting control over them

49
Q

Event Related Potentials (ERP)

A 
Using EEG (electroencephalography), the electrical signals emitted by the brain are recorded
the electrical signals that occur after a stimulus make up a pattern of electrical activity called an ERP and can be represented by waveforms
50
Q

Rugg (1995)

A

reviewed studies in which participants were shown a series of items and the ERP for each was recorded, and the participants were asked to recall
Suggested that the waveform for things that will be remembered is different from things that will be forgotten
Needs further research because these waveforms could represent different brain functions or mere attention

51
Q

Positron Emission Tomography

A

a radioactive substance is injected into the bloodstream, allowing for the detection of blood flow to different areas of the brain during a certain task

52
Q

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A

Measures the flow of oxygenated blood without using radiation (magnet instead)

53
Q

Bavalier et al (1997)

A

Studied brain activity in Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas while they read sentences or viewed consonant strings
Results: reading sentences activated the brain more than viewing consonant strings
other areas were also consistently activated by reading

54
Q

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A

non invasive brain imaging technique that combines the spatial resolution of fMRI and temporal resolution of ERP
measures electric fields produced by electrical activity in the brain
only effective for activity near cortical surface of the brain

55
Q

Connectionist Theory

A

the brain consists of an enormous number of interconnected neutrons that communicate with one another, producing cognition as an emergent process
a model of the networks formed by neurons might help us understand
Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)- can help show how information flows between and within brain regions

56
Q

Two Basic Connectionist Ideas

A

a) Information can be broken down into elementary units (neurons)
b) there are connections between these units

A neural network learns by modifying the strength of connections between elements so that the proper output occurs in response to a particular input

57
Q

The Hebb Rule

A

a connection between two neurons will only occur if both neurons are firing at the same time

Many neurons can fire at the same time (parallel processing)

58
Q

Perception

A

the processing of sensory information in such a way that it produces conscious experiences and guides action in the world

59
Q

How the eye sees

A

Light Energy

  1. enters the eye through the cornea
  2. passes through the pupil (pupil size determined by iris)
  3. Is refracted thru the lens
  4. is focused on the retina
  5. where it is captured by photoreceptors (in the fovea) and changed into a neural signal
  6. the neural is then transmitted to the brain through the optic nerve
60
Q

Primary Visual Cortex

A

the area at the back of the brain responsible for the early processing of the visual signal involved in visual consciousness

61
Q

Retinotopic

A

visual information falling on adjacent areas of the retina is processed in adjacent areas of the primary visual cortex
modular processing

62
Q

Achromotopsia

A

inability to perceive colour

63
Q

akinetopsia

A

inability to perceive objects in motion

64
Q

Visual Agnosia

A

inability to identify object visually even though they can be identified using other senses

65
Q

Ventral “What” Pathway

A

responsible for determining object shape, colour, and meaningful identity

66
Q

Dorsal “where” pathway

A

responsible for determining object location and motion, guiding action

67
Q

Feedforward Sweep

A

visual information from the primary visual cortex first propagates down the what and where pathways

68
Q

Re-entrant “feedback” connections

A

regions at the ends of the ventral and dorsal pathways send information back to the primary visual cortex

69
Q

Bottom up influences

A

The feed forward influence of the external environment on the resulting perceptual experience

70
Q

Top Down Influences

A

the feedback influence of context and the individual’s knowledge, expectations, and high-level goals on perceptual experience

71
Q

Fusiform Face Area (FFA)

A

the brain area responsible for the conscious recognition of faces

72
Q

Prosopagnosia

A

a selective deficit in the ability to consciously recognize faces due to damage the FFA

73
Q

Parahippocampal Place Area (PPA)

A

the brain area responsible for conscious recognition of places

74
Q

Extrastriate Body Area (EBA)

A

the brain area involved in processing non-facial body parts

75
Q

Pattern Recognition

A 
the ability to recognize an event as an instance of a particular category of event
Three Theories
1. Feature Detection Theory
2. Recognition by Components (RBS)
3. Template Matching Theory
76
Q

Memory Trace

A

the trace an experience leaves behind in memory

77
Q

Höffding Function

A

the process whereby an experience makes contact with a memory trace, resulting in recognition

78
Q

Feature Detection Theory

A

detecting patterns on the basis of their features or properties

79
Q

Selfridge (1959) Pandemonium Model

A

Pattern recognition consists of 3 levels

  1. Features- the bottom level model consists of properties of the stimulus such as size, colour, shape, etc
  2. Cognitive Demons- this level decides whether the stimulus matches its particular pattern
  3. Decision Demons- this top level decides which pattern is being recognized based on the input of cognitive demons
80
Q

Pelli et al. (2003)

A

investigated the effect of the contrast between the letters of a word and the background on which they are printed
-participants were shown words for 200 milliseconds and then had a recognition test (words varied in length and contrast energy)
as word length increased, more contrast energy was needed

81
Q

Recognition by Components

A

Biederman, 1987
posits that we recognize object by breaking them down into their fundamental geometric shapes, gens, and then compare with existing memory representations
-accounts for our ability to recognize objects from different viewpoints
-makes verifiable predictions about which viewpoints should be more difficult to recognize objects
-explains why object recognition is robust against visual noise

82
Q

Geons

A

the set of 36 basic 3D shapes from which all real world objects can be constructed

83
Q

Accidental Viewpoint

A

RBC

the angle at which an object is difficult to recognize

84
Q

Template Matching Theory

A

involves comparing the configuration of the current sensory input with a standard configuration we have in memory (a prototype or template)

85
Q

Prototype

A

an average representation of the object in memory; changes over time with new information

86
Q

Hintzman (1986, 1992)

A

Multiple Trace Memory Model
-traces of each individual experience are recorded in memory
-distinguishes between primary memory (current) and secondary memory (past experience memory traces)
The Model
1. a probe from primary memory activates secondary memory
2. memory traces are activated to the extent that they are similar to the probe
3. Contributions from the activated memory traces return an echo to primary memory

87
Q

Posner et al. (1967)

A

showed participants arrays of dots (distortions of prototypes called concepts) that they had to classify but were never shown prototypes
found that participants classified the prototypical patterns very well, even though they never experienced it before

88
Q

Context Effects

A

the change in perception of a visual component of a scene based on the surrounding information and the observer’s prior knowledge
Moon Illusion and Apparent Distance Theory

89
Q

Moon Illusion

A

the tendency for the moon to appear different in size depending on whether it is near the horizon or high in the sky

90
Q

Apparent-Distance Theory

A

the moon on the horizon is perceived as farther away (and therefore larger) because it can be compared to distance cues on the earth’s surface

91
Q

Gestalt Psychology

A

the whole that is perceived is greater than the sum of its parts
perception is holistic in nature rather than atomistic; grouping of visual features to form a whole follows certain organizational principles

92
Q

Gestalt Organizational Principles

A 
Principle of Experience
Principle of Similarity
Principle of Proximity
Principle of Symmetry
Principle of Parallelism
93
Q

Principle of Experience

A

visual components are grouped together based on the prior experience and knowledge of the observer

94
Q

Principle of Similarity

A

visual elements are grouped together based on similarity

shape, colour, size, etc

95
Q

Principle of Proximity

A

visual elements are grouped together based on how physically close they are to each other

96
Q

Principle of Symmetry

A

symmetrical lines are perceived as going together

97
Q

Principle of Parallelism

A

lines that are parallel or similar in orientation are perceived as going together
(in the natural world, parallel things are too similar to have randomly occurred)

98
Q

Figure-Ground Segmentation

A

we perceptually organize items so that there is an object in the foreground, known as the figure, and everything else is background
regions usually perceived as the figures are the ones with higher denotivity: those that appear more familiar and meaningful to the observer

Cognitive Psychology (2 decks)

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