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Cognitive Psychology > Unit Exam 1 > Flashcards

Unit Exam 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Define Cognition

A

the mental actions or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience and the senses
mental action of knowing or how we come to know

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2
Q

Early Study of Cognition- Late 1950’s-1960’s

A

rapid progression
methods included traditional psychophysics and experimental psychology
the study of psychology started to become a scientific pursuit

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3
Q

Watson and Skinner

A

behavioural psychologists

predecessors to cognitive psychology

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4
Q

Traditional psychophysics

A

relating physical stimuli with your perception; often through introspection

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5
Q

Early Study of Cognition- Mid 1970’s

A

fuelled by computational analysis and marked arrival of early cognitive science

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6
Q

Computational analysis

A

demonstrating thoughts and behaviours through mathematical concepts

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7
Q

Early Study of Cognition- Mid 1980’s

A

incorporated evidence from neuropsychology and animal neurophysiology
utilizes an ever increasing array of imaging techniques
studying areas of the brain

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8
Q

Cognitive Psychology

A

the world contains information for humans to process
humans are active selectors of information, not passive receivers
we can study how the brain chooses and processes information
process of developing our metacognition

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9
Q

Bit- binary digit

A

the most basic unit of information

the quantification of the amount of information provided by the occurrence of an event

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10
Q

Information Theory

A

borrowed from communication engineers
posits that the information provided in a message is inversely related to its probability of occurrence
the less likely something is, the more information is conveys
our brain automatically latches to things that give us more information

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11
Q

Limitations on Information Processing

A

Time Limitation

Capacity Limitation

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12
Q

Time Limitation on Information Processing

A

the amount of time it takes for information to be processed in the nervous system
physiological limit is 100m/s
Hycks (1952) and Hyman (1953)

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13
Q

Hycks (1952) and Hyman (1953)

A

participants have to give verbal or key-press responses to a visual signal
Response time increase
A) as the number of signals increased (increased uncertainty)
B) less frequent and less probable signals need more processing
participants needed more time to process under these circumstances

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14
Q

Capacity Limitation on Information Processing

A

The amount of information that the nervous system can process within a fixed period of time
Webster and Thompson (1953)

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15
Q

Webster and Thompson (1953)

A

participants listened to two simultaneous messages, consisting of call signals (from a set of 10) followed by a three word message (from a set of 1152)
participants could identify both call signals, but only one word message
processing capacity is limited by the amount of information

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16
Q

Selective attention

A

humans are active selectors of all the information around us

we are not parallel processors; we cannot process simultaneously

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17
Q

Broadbent’s Filter Model- 1958

Information Processing

A

borrowed from information communication engineers
information processing is restricted by channel capacity- the maximum amount of information that can be transmitted by an information processing device
The brain selects information to process and other information remains in the short term memory buffer where it will decay over time

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18
Q

Broadbent Filter Model task

A

presented participants with 3 two-digit pairs, one digit being presented to each ear
participants had a higher success rate when digits were recalled one ear at a time rather than in simultaneous pairs
ears are sub channels; switching between accepting information from different channels decreases accuracy

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19
Q

Waugh and Norman’s Model of Information Processing (1965)

A 
Primary memory (what we are aware of in the immediately present moment) has an unlimited capacity but without rehearsal is will degrade
With rehearsal it can pass to secondary memory (knowledge acquired at a previous time that is stored indefinitely)
Studied this through the Brown-Peterson Task
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20
Q

Brown-Peterson Task

A

how distinction is drawn between primary and secondary memory
participants were given something to remember, then asked to count backwards by 3 for a specified number of times
recall memory decreased as the distractor duration increased

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21
Q

Ecological Approach to research

A

using the richness of information provided by the natural environment
the meaning of objects and events can be perceived in terms of their affordances
Affordances- the potential functions or uses of stimuli in the real world; not innate but learned through information pick up

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22
Q

Gibson (1950-1966)

A

argued for the use of the ecological approach
we act naturally with given objects and their affordances
this is contrary to lab experiments which use stimuli without affordances

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23
Q

Information Pick Up

A

the process whereby we perceive information directly

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24
Q

Neisser’s Cyclical Model of Cognition (1976)

A

Objects in the environment provide us with information
Schema- patterns of thought about things in our world, that are constantly changing
Our observations of objects modify our schemas, which direct how we explore the world, which then impacts how we see objects

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25
Kingstone, Smilek, and Eastwood (2008)- Cognitive Ethology
cognitive processed depend on the specific situational context of the subject research suggests that what we discover about our cognitive processes in the lab may not be true in the real world
26
Metacognition
the knowledge people have about the way that cognition processes work thinking about thinking
27
Localization of Function
the theory that there is a direct correspondence between specific cognitive functions and specific parts of the brain
28
Phrenology
the study of the shape, size, and protrusions of the cranium in an attempt to discover the relationship between parts of the brain and various mental activities and abilities
29
Gall and Spurzheim (Late 1700's)
used phrenology to infer intellectual strengths and weaknesses the more highly developed a function, the bigger the area of the brain, cause protrusions on the scalp
30
Franz (1912)
opposed to localization of function used ablation studies to see if damaging specific areas results loss of abilities Conclusion: mental processes are due to the activity of the brain as a whole, not individual parts
31
Lashley (1929)
Found there was little to no impact on behaviour if brain damage was minimal suggested that learning and memory was directly proportional to the extent of brain damage rather than location However, the exception to this was the specific motor and sensory cortices Two Laws Law of Mass Action Law of Equipotentiality
32
Law of Mass Action
learning and memory depend on the total mass of brain tissue remaining rather than the properties of the individual cells
33
Law of Equipotentiality
despite the fact that certain areas of the brain may be specialized to perform specific functions, within limits, any part of the area can do the job of any other part of that same area in the brain
34
Cognitive Neuroscience
multidisciplinary study that strives to arrive at an integrated understanding of the brain
35
Consciousness
what we are aware of at any given point
36
Mind
include consciousness, as well as processes that occur outside of awareness
37
Interactionism
Descartes the mind and brain are separate entities that interact and influence each other dualistic
38
Epiphenomenalism
the mind is a by product of the brain functioning | the mind can play no causal role in determining behaviour, since it is only phenomenon of the brain
39
Parallelism
the mind and brain are two aspects of the same reality, and they operate in parallel every event in the mind has a corresponding event in the brain
40
Isomorphism
traced back to Gestalt psychology consciousness tends to be organized into a coherent whole experience and its corresponding brain pattern share the same pattern in all their structural characteristics Think optical illusions: you can see different things, each thing corresponds to an all or none brain pattern
41
Animal Models
many neuroimaging techniques are too invasive to use on human participants there is a limit to how much can be related back to the human mind ethical issues- if there is any other way to study behaviour it must be used
42
Study of Brain Injury
it is possible to relate symptoms to the parts of the brain that have been damaged not foolproof
43
Paul Broca
Broca's Area- located near the motor cortex, area of speech production Broca's Aphasia- a deficit in the ability to produce speech as a result of damage to Broca's area (comprehension intact, production comprimised)
44
Karl Wernicke
Wernicke's area- located in the association cortex, where words get meaning Wernicke's Aphasia- language comprehension is compromised, and the individual produces incoherent speech (real words but wrong grammar)
45
Surgical Intervention
By removing or otherwise tampering with certain areas in the brain, you can solve certain behavioural or other problems
46
Interhemispheric Transfer
communication between the hemispheres of the brain, enabled in large part by the corpus callosum
47
Roger Sperry (1913-1994)
received the Nobel Prize in 1981 for his research on inter hemispheric transfer left hemisphere- analytical right hemisphere- holistic tasks later became clear that there is no simple division of labour
48
Sperry's Nature of Consciousness
Consciousness is an emergent property, not reducible to nor a product of other feature of the brain It also has emergent causation- it can influence lower level functions thus, the mind is supervenient- mental states are determined by constituent neuronal event while they are exerting control over them
49
Event Related Potentials (ERP)
``` Using EEG (electroencephalography), the electrical signals emitted by the brain are recorded the electrical signals that occur after a stimulus make up a pattern of electrical activity called an ERP and can be represented by waveforms ```
50
Rugg (1995)
reviewed studies in which participants were shown a series of items and the ERP for each was recorded, and the participants were asked to recall Suggested that the waveform for things that will be remembered is different from things that will be forgotten Needs further research because these waveforms could represent different brain functions or mere attention
51
Positron Emission Tomography
a radioactive substance is injected into the bloodstream, allowing for the detection of blood flow to different areas of the brain during a certain task
52
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
Measures the flow of oxygenated blood without using radiation (magnet instead)
53
Bavalier et al (1997)
Studied brain activity in Broca's and Wernicke's areas while they read sentences or viewed consonant strings Results: reading sentences activated the brain more than viewing consonant strings other areas were also consistently activated by reading
54
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
non invasive brain imaging technique that combines the spatial resolution of fMRI and temporal resolution of ERP measures electric fields produced by electrical activity in the brain only effective for activity near cortical surface of the brain
55
Connectionist Theory
the brain consists of an enormous number of interconnected neutrons that communicate with one another, producing cognition as an emergent process a model of the networks formed by neurons might help us understand Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)- can help show how information flows between and within brain regions
56
Two Basic Connectionist Ideas
a) Information can be broken down into elementary units (neurons) b) there are connections between these units A neural network learns by modifying the strength of connections between elements so that the proper output occurs in response to a particular input
57
The Hebb Rule
a connection between two neurons will only occur if both neurons are firing at the same time Many neurons can fire at the same time (parallel processing)
58
Perception
the processing of sensory information in such a way that it produces conscious experiences and guides action in the world
59
How the eye sees
Light Energy 1. enters the eye through the cornea 2. passes through the pupil (pupil size determined by iris) 3. Is refracted thru the lens 4. is focused on the retina 5. where it is captured by photoreceptors (in the fovea) and changed into a neural signal 6. the neural is then transmitted to the brain through the optic nerve
60
Primary Visual Cortex
the area at the back of the brain responsible for the early processing of the visual signal involved in visual consciousness
61
Retinotopic
visual information falling on adjacent areas of the retina is processed in adjacent areas of the primary visual cortex modular processing
62
Achromotopsia
inability to perceive colour
63
akinetopsia
inability to perceive objects in motion
64
Visual Agnosia
inability to identify object visually even though they can be identified using other senses
65
Ventral "What" Pathway
responsible for determining object shape, colour, and meaningful identity
66
Dorsal "where" pathway
responsible for determining object location and motion, guiding action
67
Feedforward Sweep
visual information from the primary visual cortex first propagates down the what and where pathways
68
Re-entrant "feedback" connections
regions at the ends of the ventral and dorsal pathways send information back to the primary visual cortex
69
Bottom up influences
The feed forward influence of the external environment on the resulting perceptual experience
70
Top Down Influences
the feedback influence of context and the individual's knowledge, expectations, and high-level goals on perceptual experience
71
Fusiform Face Area (FFA)
the brain area responsible for the conscious recognition of faces
72
Prosopagnosia
a selective deficit in the ability to consciously recognize faces due to damage the FFA
73
Parahippocampal Place Area (PPA)
the brain area responsible for conscious recognition of places
74
Extrastriate Body Area (EBA)
the brain area involved in processing non-facial body parts
75
Pattern Recognition
``` the ability to recognize an event as an instance of a particular category of event Three Theories 1. Feature Detection Theory 2. Recognition by Components (RBS) 3. Template Matching Theory ```
76
Memory Trace
the trace an experience leaves behind in memory
77
Höffding Function
the process whereby an experience makes contact with a memory trace, resulting in recognition
78
Feature Detection Theory
detecting patterns on the basis of their features or properties
79
Selfridge (1959) Pandemonium Model
Pattern recognition consists of 3 levels 1. Features- the bottom level model consists of properties of the stimulus such as size, colour, shape, etc 2. Cognitive Demons- this level decides whether the stimulus matches its particular pattern 3. Decision Demons- this top level decides which pattern is being recognized based on the input of cognitive demons
80
Pelli et al. (2003)
investigated the effect of the contrast between the letters of a word and the background on which they are printed -participants were shown words for 200 milliseconds and then had a recognition test (words varied in length and contrast energy) as word length increased, more contrast energy was needed
81
Recognition by Components
Biederman, 1987 posits that we recognize object by breaking them down into their fundamental geometric shapes, gens, and then compare with existing memory representations -accounts for our ability to recognize objects from different viewpoints -makes verifiable predictions about which viewpoints should be more difficult to recognize objects -explains why object recognition is robust against visual noise
82
Geons
the set of 36 basic 3D shapes from which all real world objects can be constructed
83
Accidental Viewpoint
RBC | the angle at which an object is difficult to recognize
84
Template Matching Theory
involves comparing the configuration of the current sensory input with a standard configuration we have in memory (a prototype or template)
85
Prototype
an average representation of the object in memory; changes over time with new information
86
Hintzman (1986, 1992)
Multiple Trace Memory Model -traces of each individual experience are recorded in memory -distinguishes between primary memory (current) and secondary memory (past experience memory traces) The Model 1. a probe from primary memory activates secondary memory 2. memory traces are activated to the extent that they are similar to the probe 3. Contributions from the activated memory traces return an echo to primary memory
87
Posner et al. (1967)
showed participants arrays of dots (distortions of prototypes called concepts) that they had to classify but were never shown prototypes found that participants classified the prototypical patterns very well, even though they never experienced it before
88
Context Effects
the change in perception of a visual component of a scene based on the surrounding information and the observer's prior knowledge Moon Illusion and Apparent Distance Theory
89
Moon Illusion
the tendency for the moon to appear different in size depending on whether it is near the horizon or high in the sky
90
Apparent-Distance Theory
the moon on the horizon is perceived as farther away (and therefore larger) because it can be compared to distance cues on the earth's surface
91
Gestalt Psychology
the whole that is perceived is greater than the sum of its parts perception is holistic in nature rather than atomistic; grouping of visual features to form a whole follows certain organizational principles
92
Gestalt Organizational Principles
``` Principle of Experience Principle of Similarity Principle of Proximity Principle of Symmetry Principle of Parallelism ```
93
Principle of Experience
visual components are grouped together based on the prior experience and knowledge of the observer
94
Principle of Similarity
visual elements are grouped together based on similarity | shape, colour, size, etc
95
Principle of Proximity
visual elements are grouped together based on how physically close they are to each other
96
Principle of Symmetry
symmetrical lines are perceived as going together
97
Principle of Parallelism
lines that are parallel or similar in orientation are perceived as going together (in the natural world, parallel things are too similar to have randomly occurred)
98
Figure-Ground Segmentation
we perceptually organize items so that there is an object in the foreground, known as the figure, and everything else is background regions usually perceived as the figures are the ones with higher denotivity: those that appear more familiar and meaningful to the observer

Cognitive Psychology (2 decks)

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