Final Flashcards
1
Q
Bioarchaeology
A
- specialize in the recovery and analysis of human skeletal remains (human osteology)
- they may design and direct arky excavations, or may work as specialists in collaboration with multiple projects
2
Q
Wari Empire
A
- AD 600-1100
- north coast Peru
- in competition with the Tiwanku Empire is southern Peru/ Bolivia/ Chile
3
Q
Tung 2007 - violence in the wari empire
A
- 3 skeletal populations: conchopta (elite), beringa (community of commoners), la real (high status mortuary cave)
- did wari imperialism result in greater levels of violence relative to other Andean groups related to militarism?
- are there gender differences in trauma patterns?
4
Q
Osteological inventory
A
- calculate the number of elements (different bones)
- completeness
- minimum number of individuals
5
Q
Determining biological sex
A
- sex changes to the skeleton develop at puberty
- skulls and pelvis
- 80-95% accuracy
- is a continuum so can be difficult
6
Q
Determining sex on the skull:
A
- Nuchal crest
- mastoid process
- supraorbital margin
- supraorbital ridge
- mental imminence
7
Q
Nuchal crest
A
- the part of the skull where the neck muscles attach
- smooth and rounded in females
- hooked and protruding in males
8
Q
Mastoid process
A
- more prominent/ larger in males than in females
9
Q
Supraorbital margin
A
Males - more rounded
Females - more sharp
10
Q
Supraorbital ridge
A
- the bony ridge above the eyes in males tend to be more pronounced than in females
11
Q
Mental imminence
A
- lumpy thing in middle of chin
- larger on males than females
12
Q
Sexing os coaxe (hope bone)
A
- overall shape
5 key traits:
- Central arc
- subpubic concavity
- medical aspect of the ischiopibic ramus
- greater sciatic notch
- auricular surface
13
Q
Ventral arc
A
- slightly raised ridge of bone that sweeps inferiority and latterly across the Central surface
- only present in females - females wide and evenly arching
14
Q
Subpubic concavity
A
- females curved, men straight
15
Q
Medial aspect of the ischiopubic ramus
A
- females sharp and borrow, males flat and blunt
16
Q
Sciatic notch
A
- in ilium
- wider in women
17
Q
Auricular surface
A
- raises auricular surface
18
Q
Age at death estimation in adults vs. Juveniles
A
- techniques used for juveniles and adults differ
- juveniles: relies on development and maturation
- adults: relies on degeneration
19
Q
Age in juveniles
A
- Tooth eruption.
- long bone length
- epiphyseal closure
20
Q
Tooth eruption
A
- the appearance of teeth above the alveolar margin
- compare to general chart
21
Q
Age adults
A
- cranial sutures (from 0 open to 3 completely fused)
- pubic symphysis
- dental wear
22
Q
Types of trauma to the cranium
A
- antemortem (before of death)
- perimortem (cause of death)
- post-Mortem (modification)
23
Q
Violence vs injury
A
- location
- “freshness” (healed/ not healed)
- discolouration of the bone
24
Q
Parry fractures**
A
- using hand to block strike
- radius or ulna
25
Q
Depressed fractures
A
- weapon wounds
26
Q
Post cranial trauma
A
Most likely due to violence
- depressed fractures
- cut marks
- punctures
- embedded projectile points
- fractures to the phalanges
27
Q
Trauma from accidental injury
A
- look like they could be from violence, but usually not
- most likely due to injury: compression fractures; hairline or spiral fractures (rarely indicate cannibalism)
28
Q
Political organization
A
- the activities and beliefs of territory-based groups
29
Q
Level of political integration
A
“Complexity”
- the largest territorial group in whose behalf political activities are organized
- complexity as purely descriptive and does not come with value
- levels of hierarchy in terms of political authority
30
Q
Types of political organization
A
- band
- tribe
- chiefdom
- state
31
Q
Band
A
- a fairly small, usually nomadic local group that is politically autonomous
~ 30-50 people - lowest level of political organization, lack of hierarchy
- bands go to great lengths to enforce egalitarian principles
- traditional bands had no hereditary leaders or standing political institutions
- members can split and join other bands
- many First Nations and Native American groups were/ are bands; others use band to refer to a tribal division (Pikani head smashed in)
- !Kung/ San, South Africa
32
Q
Tribe
A
A territorial population in which there are kin or Jon kin groups with representatives in a number of local groups
- some multilocal, but usually not society wise integration
- age sets & clans (matrilineal & cut across diff groups)
- some indigenous NA groups such as Iroquois and Haidenosaunee
33
Q
Chiefdom
A
- a political unit with a chief, integrating more than one community out but not necessarily the whole society of language group
- Fiji, Papua New Guinea
34
Q
State
A
- a form of political organization that includes class stratification, three or more levels of hierarchy, and leaders with the power to govern by force (army, executive)
- popular will can change governments
- markers are a bit vague
35
Q
Empires
A
Essentially states, but conquer other states
36
Q
Age sets
A
Non kin based unity that comes from being in same age groups with rites of passage at certain ages; like grade schools
37
Q
Clans
A
Often matrilineal and cut across groups
38
Q
Forager characteristics
A
- seasonal residential moves among a series of resource “patches”
- individual or small groups gather food daily in an “encounter” basis, and return to the residence in the afternoon
- hunting parties may forage further afield for large game, using over big camp, and transporting meat back to camp
- specialized work party may establish temporary camps away from the residential base camp
39
Q
Collectors
A
- as opposed to foragers, collectors supply themselves with specific resources, through specially organized task groups
- store food for at least part of the year
- obtain distant resources through food procurement parties or communal hunting
- in addition to residential camps, task groups create field camps, stations, and caches
40
Q
Examples of collectors food procurement
A
- buffalo jumps or pounds
- hunting big- horn sheeps at salt licks
- pursuing caribou bulls in July
- seasonal fishing/ whaling
41
Q
Foragers vs Food producers
A
evolutionary models developed in the 19th century argued that nomadic bands were less “evolved” than food producers (eg agriculturalists)
- bands peeved other forms, but still exist today
- previously agricultural groups may take on forager/ nomadic lifestyle due to political disruption
- foragers often lose land and resources due to infringement by pastoralists or agricultural groups
- states often force nomadic groups to become sedentary to make them easier to make them easier to control (violence, assimilation, acculturation)
42
Q
As foragers move around the landscape:
A
- They do so in a very specific, patterned way, to take advantage if specific seasonal resources (faunal, plant, chilled stone for tools)
- They recognize (and defend) traditional territories
- Traditional territories are often defined by major landforms, marked landscapes, and oral histories (sometimes sacred; routes marked with cairns)
43
Q
Foragers in the arky record
A
Problem: foragers generally leave minimal traces on the landscape
- mobile lifestyle inhibits the accumulation of possessions
- foragers generally privilege sustainable lifeways
- exceptions: sites associated with communal hunting (HSI)
- heavy reliance on stone tools during the pre- contact period
44
Q
Common artifacts at forager sites
A
- projectile points
- scrapers
- digging/ pounding / grinding elements
- hearths/ fire-cracked rock
- post holes, tipi rings, and other remnants of portable shelters
- post holes from smoking/ drying racks for preserving meats
- faunal remains and bone tools (jumps, drives, caches)
45
Q
Mahaffy Cache (Boulder, CO)
A
- strategy to leave things in area where you may need them again
- 13,000ya (Clovis area)
- 80+ stone tools (biracial knives and scrapers)
- includes raw materials from Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah
- protein residues from butchering (camels, horses, bear, and sheep)
46
Q
Foraging lifeways
A
- hunting/ gathering
- fishing
47
Q
Hunting/ gathering
A
- small groups, often mobile, division of labour by age and gender
- no individual or group ownership
- foraging groups often more egalitarian and this is socially enforced
48
Q
Fishing
A
- larger groups, less mobile, more social inequality
- some individual or family land ownership
- boats, some residential buildings
- more likely to be more sedentary, more political divisions, social inequality and status competition, and ownership of possession (ex fishings nets, kayaks, hunting traps, etc.)
49
Q
Fishing production lifeways:
A
- more likely to be sedentary than foragers
- highly variable in terms of political organization and gender divisions
- social inequality and status competition are more common than for other foragers
- families or kin groups may own nets, traps, kayaks, fishing sites, houses, and goods
50
Q
Sedentism
A
- investment in built architecture
- evidence of year round occupation
- non portable material culture: pottery, grinding stones, glass
51
Q
Pastoralism
A
- depends on domesticated herd animals fed in natural pasture
- small groups, division of labour by age and gender
- intensive system vs extensive system
- community land ownership, private herd ownership
- seasonal migration usually with some sort of home base
- conflicts between farmers and ranchers
52
Q
Pastoralism in the archaeological record
A
- remains of shelters and domestic materials suggest seasonal occupation, mobility and exploitation of niche resources, similar to foragers
- property and valuables are portables
- lack of constructed property boundaries - barriers to movement of herds
- pens or other temporary shelters for herds
- faunal remains reflect domestication of particular species
- however, pastoralists often have trading partnerships with sedentary communities for agricultural and manufactured products, particularly in later periods
53
Q
Horticulture
A
- shifting (slash-and-burn) cultivation vs forestry (tree crops) (burn area of jungle to return nitrogen to soil and increase nutrients for growth)
- larger groups, semi- mobile, more social inequality (tribes, chiefdoms)
- community land ownership (b/c need to move your plot); private crop ownership
54
Q
Horticulture/ Agriculture in the Arky record
A
Can be hard to tell sort
- pollen/ photolithography of domesticated plant species
- Diversified (stone) tool kits (axes/ hoes)
- plant processing tools and storage facilities
55
Q
Intensive agriculture
A
- permanent cultivation of field (raised fields, terraces, irrigation canals, aqueducts)
- use of fertilizers (soil chemistry, ash deposits, pollen)
56
Q
Agricultural based states in the arky record
A
- Larger groups, sedentary, high social inequality (platforms, cities, burial goods, symbols of rulership)
- Private land ownership (fences, walls, property boundary markers)
57
Q
Indications of big social inequality, and therefore agriculture?
A
- palaces; symbols of royalty
- fancy tombs
- royal titles
- fancy grave goods
- rulers on monuments
- fancy household goods
- war captives - rulers have power over life and death
- taxes, laws, and other bureaucratic institutions
58
Q
Agriculturalists foragers
A
- pollen analyses and isotope studies suggest that some early agriculturalists also engages in seasonal foraging
- shell mounds of Tlacuachero, Mexico
59
Q
Shell mounds of Tlacuachero, Mexico
A
- previous interpretation: created by hunter gather fishers with a low level of food production
- semi- mobile lifestyle with a classic collector settlement pattern
- processing of wetland resources: shrimp, fish, and shellfish
- evidence of shelters and drying racks in top of mounds
- new interpretation: horticulturalist - foragers (evidence of farming from maize and charcoal)
- prepared living surfaces buried within shell mounds - long term occupation
60
Q
Achieved status
A
- band, tribe
- obtained by individuals over their lifetime
- cannot be passed on to descendants
- can be based in age, skill at war/ sports, occupation, connection with the supernatural (shaman/ healer)
61
Q
Ascribed status
A
- chiefdom, state
- obtained from individuals from birth
- passed on to descendants
- often confers special privileges
