Final

Question 1

When did Homo sapiens make the full transition to anatomically modern humans? Where did this most likely occur?

Answer 1

Most likely in Africa, appearing 200,000 years ago, leaving after 100,000 years ago, but full transition didn’t occur until 25,000 years ago. Recent African origins supported by mtDNA evidence.

Question 2

List three of the six major Paleolithic trends summarized in class. Make sure to provide enough information so that we understand the trend and the direction it was moving towards.

Answer 2

Increasingly gracile skeleton
Decreasing size of face and teeth
Increasing cognitive abilities
More sophisticated and variation in tools
Increasing dependent on and more efficient hunting
Increasing reliance on culture to meet environmental challenges
Increasing migration

Question 3

For the emergence of anatomically modern H. sapiens, review the genetic, anatomical, and cultural evidence in the paleoanthropological record.

Answer 3

mtDNA supports the Recent African Origins hypothesis, which asserts that anatomically modern humans left Africa after 100,000 years ago.

Question 4

Describe the Aurignacian tool tradition and give examples

Answer 4

Use thinner cuts of bone
Use lighter materials
Use a blade technique
tools include harpoons, blade, bifaces, needles
Use pressure flaking

Question 5

What is pressure flaking? Is it an efficient way to construct tools?

Answer 5

Pressure flaking: bone antler or wood tool presses off small edge flakes (serrated edge), efficient.

Question 6

What was the significance of net hunting, and why is it considered an important innovation? Explain.

Answer 6

Net hunting allowed many fish to be captured at once. Earliest evidence for the practice arose from 75,000 years ago in the Congo, with catfish, before even the bow and arrow.

Question 7

What advantages did the spear-thrower offer Upper Paleolithic people?

Answer 7

The atlatl dramatically increased the range a spear could be accurately thrown. This meant a hunter could be further away from dangerous big game, reducing the risk of injury, and more easily avoiding alerting the animal of their presence.

Question 8

What is frequently depicted in Paleolithic cave art in Europe and other locations around the world? What can we learn and infer from Paleolithic cave art?

Answer 8

Geometric shapes: might represent natural world

Cognitive abilities, beauty, environment, rituals, handedness

Question 9

What are the various explanations offered for Upper Paleolithic cave painting? Evaluate these in light of what you have learned about their other cultural accomplishments. (this question is

Answer 9

Showed more evidence of ritual trade and creativity, used to express increased cognitive ability. The paintings may be used for ritual, be a form of communication, a marking of territory, or signify a flourishing culture.

Question 10

Three hypotheses have been proposed for the origins of anatomically modern humans. List and describe each. Make sure to include information about the role of genes and gene flow. Which hypothesis is most likely given current evidence?

Answer 10

Multi-regional: simultaneous production of humans in Africa Asia Europe, gene flow between bonding population, other humans were transitional forms, problem is modern humans and Neanderthals coexisted
Recent african: modern biology/behavior/cultural origin in Africa then spread out, left because climate shifted to drier, followed herds along coast, problem: relies on mtDNA but doesn’t account for other DNA contribution
Assimilation model: both, gen flow with other humans after left Africa, reconciles different evidence, second migration to contact with archaic humans, most accepted theory

Question 11

What environmental factors promoted the migration of humans across the globe?

Answer 11

Younger Dryas: 1300 years of cold and drought
Bound by warm temperatures and humidity
Following herds for food
Climate shifts made it drier

Question 12

What sorts of evidence do scientists use to track human migration across the globe?

Answer 12

mtDNA is frequently used, as it is only transmitted from the maternal line, and thus more stable (not additional variation from sexual reproduction). The molecular clock technique assumes a constant rate of accumulation of mutations in mtDNA, and may be used to discern when different human populations interacted.

Question 13

Migration into the Americas likely occurred in at least two separate events. Identify the two routes on the map below and label each route with the name the people who took this route. Below the map briefly describe one piece of evidence for each group.

Answer 13

Inland: 13-10,000 ybp, Clovis people, texas, followed herds across isthmus
Coastal: 20-15000 ybp, earlier migration, Paleo-Indian people

Question 14

Why did the transition to agriculture occur? Consider both environmental and climate factors in your response.

Answer 14

Big environmental changes cause food supply to change

Question 15

List and briefly describe some population level benefits of agriculture.

Answer 15

Developed sedentary society
Increased carrying capacity of land
Civilization: permanent storage, monuments, writing
Change in social structure
Craft specialization
Trade

Question 16

List and briefly describe some population level costs of agriculture.

Answer 16

More labour intensive than foraging
More resources needed: land and labour
Environment not sustainable: soil arid, clear more space for too much livestock
Diseases: raised mammals pass their diseases to us and then to each other

Question 17

What is domestication? Briefly describe 3 desirable traits in plant species and 3 desirable traits in animal species that would encourage their domestication.

Answer 17

Humans cultivating plants and taming animals, selectively breeding them for desirable traits
Plants: taste, nutrition, storage
Animals: size, number of uses, friendly behavior

Question 18

What is the first species scientists believe to have been domesticated? When? Briefly describe one theory for how this species was domesticated. (Consult the videos from class and the textbook pg 245-46.)

Answer 18

Rice 6500

Question 19

List out 3 regions where domestication took place (origins). Identify 2 domesticated species in each of these areas. Briefly discuss the key factors researchers believe were important in supporting domestication in diverse locations globally.

Answer 19

Sahel: cattle and millet
China: rice, oranges
India: Mangos, chicken
Key factors: good agricultural conditions, concentrated species with desirable traits

Question 20

Explain why the widespread use of pottery is, to the archaeologist, a good (but not foolproof) indication of a sedentary community.

Answer 20

Hard to carry heavy jars with you, indicate storage of large amounts of food

Question 21

Fill in the table to list and briefly describe the five main types of subsistence strategies. Your response should consider primary foods and settlement patterns. Finally give one cultural example of each. Please note that one of the subsistence strategies has two types and responses should be consistent throughout the table.

Answer 21

Foraging:
All humans did before agricultural revolution
Rely on wild plants and animals: hunt, gather, fish
Not sedentary, more egalitarian
Ex. !Kung
Pastoralism:
Rely on livestock production: meat, milk, blood
Live symbiotically with animals by protecting them
Supplements foraging
Nomadic: fairly sustainable in dry areas, everyone moves with herds, rely on trade heavily (ex. Toreg - Mali)
Transhumance: only part of community moves with herds, generally youths, permanent village with crops, trade (ex. Basque - France, Spain)
Horticulture:
Extensive agriculture: swidden, slash and burn, non-continuous land use, can be sustainable or create waste and co2
Simple tools: fire, digging stick
Multicrop and multiyear system: mix domestic with wild
Ex. Dayak - Malaysia
Agriculture:
Intensive agriculture: continuous land use, huge labour investment, irrigation, terracing on steep slopes, animals for transportation, cultivation and manure
Large group people settle into civilization
Anasazi Pueblo Indians - America
Industrialism:
High amount of specialization
Money buys labour, skills and knowledge
Social and economic gap between workers and bosses
Ex. USA

Question 22

What are some reasons that don’t women hunt more in foraging groups and other groups that might incorporate foraging into their portfolio of livelihood activities?

Answer 22

Gathering can be coordinated with other tasks, done in known area
In demand for children: lactation, reproduction, pregnancy etc
Can’t hunt as well when pregnant
Hunting bands are small by nature

Question 23

Describe the differences between intensive and extensive agriculture. Consider specific capital inputs and yields from planted crops.

Answer 23

Intensive: continuous land use, huge labour investment, irrigation, terracing on steep slopes. Long term yield is higher, short term yield is same
Extensive: swidden, slash and burn, non-continuous land use, can create waste or be sustainable. Long term yield is lower, short term yield is same

Question 24

What are some costs and benefits of the Agricultural Revolution/settlement and subsequent development of cities on individual human biology?

Answer 24

Benefits: Increased bone strength in bones used for workload, steady supply of food
Costs: nutritional deficiencies due to less food diversity, dental crowding and smaller teeth, osteoarthritis due to workload, increased transmission of disease, anemia and stunted growth

Question 25

What sort of evidence can be found in skeletal remains - available in the archaeological record - that shows a primary dependence on domesticated foods and diversification of labor? Think about specific examples (consult chapter 9 & 10).

Answer 25

From archaeological records, age, disease, stress, bone and muscle changes. Diversification of labor can be seen through differences in bone size from particular body parts used. Example: basketball players have longer limbs, tennis players+pitchers have one bigger arm.

Question 26

Living in the context of civilization ourselves, we are inclined to view its development as a great step upward on some sort of ladder of progress. Whatever benefits civilization has brought, though, the cultural changes it represents produced new sorts of problems. Identify and describe at least 2 of those problems.

Answer 26

Wealth inequality: elites controlled resources, kept riches for selves Gender inequality: women were put in inferior roles

Question 27

Social stratification in emerging civilizations was written “on the ground and on the bodies” of its citizens. Present and discuss the evidence for this, and consider if this is still true today.

Answer 27

Skeletons: age at death, nutritional stress, disease, bone and muscle changes Grave goods: tools, jewelry Dwellings: size, location Still true today, money buys larger houses in areas with less space, access to health insurance, material belongings

Question 28

Why was writing important to the development of cities and states?

Answer 28

Scholars specialize to keep records | Disseminate information, store/systemize/deploy written records for politics, religion, economic purposes

Question 29

Identify and discuss the role and importance of each of the four factors marking the transition from Neolithic village life to urban city life. You should include at least one piece of evidence for each factor in your discussion.

Answer 29

Agricultural innovation- Sumerian irrigation system Diversity of labor- production of metal tools and ornaments required specialization Central governments- signs of city planning with written law codes, excavation Social stratification- differences in grave goods between upper class and lower class

Question 30

List and briefly describe three theories that hypothesize the growth of civilization.

Answer 30

Hydraulic Theory - construct elaborate irrigation systems to ensure crop harvest. Requires full-time managers to control access and ensure maintenance, so the first governing group became the elite social class. Environmental barrier Theory - if no space to expand to access resources, compete for increasingly scarce resources and lead to social stratification. Elites control resources and give limited access to lower classes in exchange for services. Action Theory - environmental theories often fail to recognize the capacity of the ambitious, charismatic leader to shape the course of human history. Acknowledges the relationship of society to the environment. Recognizes that forceful leaders strive to advance their positions through self-serving actions.

Question 31

Archaeologically, how can social stratification show up in human burials?

Answer 31

Symbols of special status and privilege appeared, ranking people according to the kind of work they did or the family into which they were born. Dwelling sizes and locations - palaces vs. tiny homes, grave size Grave goods - tools, jewelry State of skeleton - age to death, nutritional stress, disease, bone, muscle changes

Question 32

Why was specialization important in the growth of cities?

Answer 32

In agricultural societies, where cities tended to arise, money buys labor, skills, knowledge, and goods, facilitating the prioritization of obtaining money over obtaining food at the individual level. Irrigation required full time management, leading to the development of an elite (hydraulic theory), who needed scribes to keep the records necessary for taxation. The sedentary living in cities, enabled and encouraged by irrigated agriculture allowed large items to be accumulated, leading to technological specialists.

Question 33

What is the difference between a push factor and a pull factor? List 2 push factors and 2 pull factors for migration.

Answer 33

Push: leave country, war, poverty Pull: come to a new country, jobs, education, religious freedom

Question 34

Briefly explain how culture plays a role in determining population size and growth. Include examples in your explanation.

Answer 34

Number of expected kids, when and if use medicine, wars

Question 35

Compare density dependent and density independent factors that regulate population growth. What are some examples of each? Do they affect birth rates? Death rates? Both? Why?

Answer 35

Density independent: kill population members regardless to density or competition (ex. tsunami, volcanic eruption) Density dependent: mortality rate of population is proportional to population size (ex. Diseases, competition for resources)

Question 36

What are the 3 main types of macronutrients? Why are each needed by the human body?

Answer 36

Protein: builds and repairs body tissue Carbs: energy fuel Fats: store energy, insulate, nervous system function, helps micronutrients

Question 37

What are micronutrients and why do we need to ingest them?

Answer 37

Vitamins: D is only one we can make ourselves Minerals: chemical processes Water: hydration

Question 38

Are we, as a species, more adapted to meat-eating, plant-eating, or both? What evidence do we have that suggests the need to consume plants? Animals?

Answer 38

More adapted to plants but are definitely omnivores Plants: need vitamin c, have a larger digestive tract, general dentition, grinding molars Animals: milk digestion, tools for cutting meat

Question 39

Where does the idea that the "original Paleo diet" was heavy in meat come from?

Answer 39

Most ancient tools we have are for cutting meat, leftover bones

Question 40

List the 7 parameters about Paleo diets - Contemporary hunter-forager diets that we do know.

Answer 40

``` Regionally varied Seasonal High mobility population Small food packets Marrow, organs, and insects eaten Tough, woody, fibrous plants Plants had toxins and phytochemicals ```

Question 41

Why is breastfeeding advantageous (i.e. an adaptation ) for infants? Mothers?

Answer 41

Infants: easy to digest, antibodies, sanitary, kids are leaner, bonding Moms: protection from certain cancers, natural birth control, bonding

Question 42

Not all mothers breastfeed. What are some individual reasons why moms might not breastfeed? Cultural reasons?

Answer 42

Have to or want to go to work outside of home, don’t have time to nurse Expected to go back to work, bottle seems more nutritional

Question 43

What is birth spacing? How might it be done in foraging groups? Populations with access to Western medicine?

Answer 43

Breastfeeding hormones suppress reproduction, naturally spaces babies Foraging spaced 3-4 years Western: 2 years

Question 44

How is birth spacing adaptive for children? Women?

Answer 44

moms: replenish nutrients before new pregnancy Kids: parents can focus more on their wellbeing as a young baby

Question 45

How is co-sleeping adaptive for human infants? Why are adults considered a developmental bridge during the co-sleeping process?

Answer 45

Easier to breastfeed, thermoregulation, prevent or reduce SIDS Moderates and reminds baby to breathe

Question 46

List and define 3 types of immunity. Discuss why scientists think our gut microbiome could be a 4th type of immunity.

Answer 46

Adaptive: vaccines, exposure Passive: breast milk Innate: genetic Possible: gut microbiome influences obesity, mental health, malnutrition, antibiotics, babies given antibiotics more likely to be obese later

Question 47

What is the Hygiene Hypothesis? What observations/studies led to the development of this hypothesis by Von Mutius in 1999? What factors contribute to an overstimulated immune system that promotes asthma and allergies?

Answer 47

Train immune system through exposure during childhood Erika Von Mutius: observed east and west germany children’s rate of allergies and asthma Over Sanitation and cleaning prime immune system to overreact

Question 48

Define the epidemiological transition, and label the mortality trendlines in the graph below with the generic types of disease that comprise the trend. Give one example for each type of generic disease labeled on the graph (the image below shows a labeled graph, you would be given a blank one on the exam). Briefly describe what facilitates the epidemiological transition including the roles of social justice and the Germ Theory of Disease. Why might researchers suggest the Hygiene Hypothesis is a natural outcome of the Epidemiological Transition? Your response should define the Hygiene Hypothesis.

Answer 48

Transition from infectious diseases to chronic, degenerative and man-made diseases as the primary cause of mortality Better health and sanitation Increasing access to proper healthcare and sanitation for lower classes

Question 49

Who developed the Germ Theory of Disease in the 1800s? What sorts of evidence were used to support this theory? Where did people belief disease and illness came from before this theory (at least in the West)?

Answer 49

Louis Pastuer: popularized hand washing in west, doctors should wash hands between patients Diseases spread quickly in hospitals, high mortality rate Used to think spread by Miasma (air)

Question 50

When defining race, what are three characteristics that cause it to lose biological meaning for the human species?

Answer 50

Arbitrary division: how many and types of differences No single “race” has exclusive possession of a particular allele because of gene flow Vast majority of genetic variation is within a “racial” group

Question 51

How can culture act as an agent of biological selection? Give an example.

Answer 51

Use easily seen features, real differences not always noticeable

Question 52

Discuss two examples (from lecture, lab, or the textbook) of how culturally-grounded discrimination, structural violence, and the resulting inequalities affect the lives and well-being of people in the United States and/or globally. One example should examine race/ethnicity, and the other example should examine biological sex or gender. Your answer should include a definition of structural violence, as well as discuss negative outcomes for both the culturally-preferred group and those being discriminated against.

Answer 52

Minority: studies show that racial minorities experience lower quality healthcare, education, economic status, justice Gender: Hijira in India were stigmatized by Criminal Tribes Act of 1871 under British Colonial Rule

Question 53

What does it mean to be intersex? How might intersex appear physically in a person?

Answer 53

Definition: possess the reproductive or sexual anatomy or physiology that doesn’t fit our definition of male and female

Question 54

Briefly explain the difference between sex and gender.

Answer 54

Sex: legal, anatomical and/or biological distinction, XX or XY Gender: the human social, cultural and psychological qualities indicating masculinity, femininity, or lack thereof

Question 55

What is a vestigial trait?

Answer 55

Lost necessity through evolution

Question 56

Briefly describe 2 vestigial traits. If the purpose of such traits is known for an ancestral population, please include this information.

Answer 56

Plica Semilunaris: remnant of 3rd eyelid, moistens and protects eye Goosebumps: fluff up fur to look bigger when threatened, warm up

Question 57

At least 5 hypotheses have been proposed regarding human evolution. List and briefly describe three of these hypotheses.

Answer 57

H1: human evolution is dead; no isolated populations so constant genetic flow gets rid of potential mutations in populations H4: humans evolve to live in off-world colonies; travel to Mars, become adapted to new gravity and environmental pressures H5: humans will merge with technology; robotics and AI used to create stronger, healthier, more powerful humans

Question 58

List 2 possible future environmental pressures. Briefly describe how these pressures could interact with human survival and reproduction to drive human evolution in the future.

Answer 58

Climate change: hotter climate could shift body to be taller with longer limbs, darker skin Disease resistance: increasingly resistant bacteria, strongest immune systems survive

Question 59

Describe the evidence used to infer the existence of diversification of labor

Answer 59

Ancient public records document various specialized workers. Ex. an early Mesopotamian document from the old Babylonian city of Lagash, lists artisans and tradespeople paid from crop surpluses

Question 60

Define population. How do biocultural constructs like political boundaries, economies, culture, race, etc. affect how populations are defined for humans?

Answer 60

Population definition: a group of interbreeding individuals that interact with each other and the environment, reproduce, and then die. Humans often define populations by country borders or race, because historically there was very little mixing between countries or races.

Question 61

How does poverty impact factors that regulate population growth?

Answer 61

Poverty prevents access to resources that may aid in recovering from a natural disaster or disease. It may also lead to malnutrition or starvation which reduces the ability to reproduce.

Question 62

Distinguish between structural violence and health disparity.

Answer 62

Structural violence: Physical and/or psychological harm caused by impersonal, exploitative, and unjust social, political, and economic systems Health disparity: the inequalities that occur in the provision of healthcare and access to healthcare across different racial, ethnic and socioeconomic groups.

Question 63

Define evolutionary medicine, and briefly describe an example.

Answer 63

Evolutionary medicine: a branch of medical anthropology that uses evolutionary principles to contribute to human health. E.g. James McKenna suggested that human infants are evolved to sleep with adults who provide breathing cues to the sleeping infant, prevents SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome).

Question 64

What role does culture play in determining gender? Based on lecture, briefly describe at least 2 examples that don’t fit expected gender norms in US society.

Answer 64

Culture teaches us what gender is and what behaviors and appearances are associated with gender. Sworn Virgins: from Albania/Bosnia, lack of male heirs due to death and warfare resulted in need for a male heir. Woman takes a vow of chastity and takes on masculine roles, such as being the head of the family, carrying weapons, etc. Fa’afafine: from Samoa, boys raised as girls, choose their gender at 18, perform female work roles and culture roles

Question 65

Why have genetic explanations for racial/ethnic-based health disparities persisted despite strong evidence that there is no genetic basis for such disparities?

Answer 65

Certain diseases cluster in populations that share genetic background (e.g. Tay Sachs in Ashkanazi Jews, or Sickle Cell Anemia in African Americans) Genetic reasons would absolve societal responsibility to do something to fix health disparity

Question 66

There have been a number of changes to human biology and morphology in the past 45,000 years (at least) that suggest humanity is still evolving. Given their genetic basis, there has clearly been natural selection for these traits, and in a few cases there may have been some artificial selection. Choose and describe three traits that demonstrate human evolution is still occuring. Be sure your response also explains why this trait provides a reproductive and/or survival advantage.

Answer 66

Lactase- ability to digest milk into adulthood, provides another source of nutrition in times of famine Blue eyes- favored by sexual selection because of aesthetic appeal Bitter taste perception: (TAS2R38) ability to detect bitter tastes help us detect poisonous or harmful foods