Final Flashcards
(57 cards)
1
Q
Stereotypes
A
oversimplified and over-generalized beliefs about a category of people
2
Q
Prejudice
A
negative attitude (feelings or evaluation) about a category of people
3
Q
Discrimination
A
unfair behavior or policy directed toward a category of people
4
Q
racism, sexism, and ageism
A
negative stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination directed toward racial minorities, women, and the elderly, respectively
5
Q
Outgroup homogeneity effect
A
recognize fewer individual differences among members of out-groups than among members of in-groups
“They are all alike”
6
Q
Illusory correlation
A
relationships that are thought to exist when in fact they do not or are believed to be stronger than they really are
- People perceive more of a correlation between distinctive events than events that are more commonplace
- Minorities and bad behavior are both distinctive; therefore, people overestimate the relation between the two
7
Q
Ultimate attribution error
A
A tendency to attribute the positive actions of in-group members and the negative actions of out-group members to enduring personal characteristics, perhaps even genetically determined traits
- In contrast, there is a tendency to “explain away” the negative actions of in-group members
8
Q
prejudice cognitive factors
A
outgroup homogeneity effect
illusory correlation
ultimate attribution error
9
Q
prejudice motivational factors
A
Competition - Realistic group conflict theory - Relative deprivation -- egoistic deprivation -- fraternal deprivation Social identity
10
Q
Realistic group conflict theory
A
group interests that are incompatible with the interests of other groups give rise to perceived threat, distrust, hard feelings, scapegoating, and hostile behavior
11
Q
Relative deprivation
A
occurs when people perceive that others have something they themselves both want and feel they deserve, but do not possess
12
Q
Egoistic deprivation
A
occurs when an individual feels that he or she is deprived relative to others
13
Q
Fraternal deprivation
A
occurs when an individual feels that his or her social group is deprived relative to other groups
14
Q
Social Identity
A
- in-group favoritism is motivated by a need to maintain or enhance self-esteem
- Self-esteem derived in part from social identity
- social identity derived from perceived attributes and accomplishments of in-groups
- Minimal groups studies – e.g., over-estimators and under-estimators
15
Q
prejudice social factors
A
socialization
conformity
16
Q
Socialization
A
individuals learn and internalize the values and mores of society
By the time children are 3 or 4 years old
- Aware of race categories
- Exhibit preferences for some categories
17
Q
Conformity
A
individuals who report feeling the most social pressure from family, friends, or peers to be racially prejudices, tend to be the most prejudiced
18
Q
Confirmation bias
A
believing is seeing
Perceive evidence for expected events even in instances that offer little or no objective substantiation
19
Q
Self-fulfilling prophecy
A
occurs when an expectation that an event is likely to occur somehow helps to bring about the anticipated event
20
Q
Subtyping
A
view members of a group who do not fit a stereotype as rare exceptions to the rule
When evidence that disconfirms a stereotype is concentrated in a few individuals it does less to change stereotypic beliefs than when it is dispersed over many individuals
21
Q
How can stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination be reduced?
A
Contact
Self- regulation
Perspective taking
22
Q
Contact hypotheses
A
- Simple form: bringing people of different social groups in close contact with one another will help dispel stereotypes and reduce prejudice and discrimination
- Sophisticated form: conditions
- –Equal status
- –Interdependence (common goals)
- –Acquaintance potential
- –Sanction by authority
23
Q
Jigsaw classroom
A
- Divide the class into small heterogeneous groups
- Within each group, give each student one part of a lesson (a piece of the puzzle)
- Test each student on entire lesson (must get other pieces to the puzzle)
- Students teach each other their parts of the lesson (necessitates interdependence)
- Each student’s part (piece) is equally important - promotes equal status
24
Q
Self-regulation
A
For people who view themselves as unprejudiced:
- Acting in a prejudiced manner sensitizes them to cues that warn when they might act in a prejudiced manner again
- Forewarned by these cues, these people suppress their prejudiced responses and replace them with non prejudiced ones
- Becomes automatic over time
25
Social psychology of the courtroom
Social cognition
Persuasion
Group dynamics
26
Jury selection
use community surveys to help lawyers influence jury selection at 3 stages:
1. Change of venue: demonstrate the influence of bias in the community
2. Composition challenge: show that a jury panel is not representative of the community
3. Voir dire: for peremptory challenges use data on correlations between demographic factors and attitude-relevant factors
27
Death qualifying voir dire
in order to qualify for jury duty on a capital case a juror must state that they could vote for the death penalty when the legal standards for that penalty are met
Death qualification may bias juries
28
Factors influencing accuracy of eyewitness testimony
```
Acquisition: the initial perception
Cross-ratial identification bias
- Arousal
- Weapon-focus
- Expectations
Storage: retaining memory over time
Misinformation effect
- Post event info - reconstructive memory
Biasing effects of lineups and composite sketches
Retrieval - unconscious transferrence
```
29
Biasing effects of lineups and composite sketches
Pick person who is distinctive
- Simultaneous lineups lead to more false identifications than do sequential lineups
Photo-based lineup - if witness first looks at mugshots then shown a lineup, they are more likely to pick a person who was included in the mugshots, even if not the culprit
Instructions that compel picking someone leads to false identifications
Best to use double-blind procedures for lineups
Composite sketches
Seldom look like culprit
Process misleads (confuses)
30
Unconscious transference
a person seen in one situation is confused with a person seen in another situation
31
Confessions
have a big weight in trials
Sometimes false, particularly when
- Pressured- often by presenting false evidence
- Befriended by interrogator- sympathy, victim blame, consequences
32
Reasons to make false confessions
Compliance: escape stressful situation
Internalization: come to believe that committed the crime
33
Who serves as an expert in reliability of eyewitness accounts
advanced degree in perception and memory or social psychology with relevant publications
34
Does expert testimony work?
Simulation studies indicate that it does. Juries:
- Deliberate linger
- Are more skeptical about eyewitness testimony
- Less likely to judge a defendant as guilty
35
Inadmissible evidence
studies with mock jurors generally indicate that jurors are influenced by:
Pretrial publicity
Evidence that is heard but then ruled as inadmissible
36
Jury deliberations
Selecting a foreperson
Group polarization
Leniency bias
Influence of size and decision rules
37
Who gets selected as foreperson
Those with high status occupations
Males
First person to speak
Those who sit at end of table
38
12 vs. 6 person mock juries
12 person juries:
Had more minority representation
Deliberated longer
Were less likely to reach a unanimous verdict
39
Comparison of unanimous (12-0) vs. quorum juries (10-2 or 8-4)
```
Quorum juries:
Spent less time discussing the case
More time voting
Rated fellow jurors as more close-minded
Were less confident about verdict
Were more likely to deliberate with a “bullying” style
```
40
Learned helplessness
experience with uncontrollable outcomes leads to 3 kinds of deficits:
1. Cognitive: fail to learn connections between behavior and outcomes
2. Motivational: why try?
3. Emotional: depression
41
Attribution retraining
Observed the learned helplessness syndrome in some school children
- Tended to give up rather than persisting
- Attributed failure to uncontrollable failures (lack of ability) instead of controllable factors (lack of effort)
- Attribution retraining: gave students a mix of easy and difficult math problems
- Whenever a student failed on a problem, the teacher said “you should have tried harder”
42
Reformulated helplessness
Learned helplessness (hopelessness) most likely to occur in people with a depressive explanatory style
Habitually attribute negative outcomes to causes that are:
- internal : my fault
- Stable: will not change
- Global: other aspects of my life will go badly too
43
Attributional style therapy
- Ask clients to perform a series of tasks and to explain their successes and failures
- Point out the client’s self-defeating attributional style and explain the advantages of a more self-enhancing style
- Have clients keep a diary of daily successes and failures and explain why they occur
- Encourage clients to attribute successes internally and failures externally
44
Vicarious extinction
Used to cure phobias
Based on social (observational) learning
Strategy:
- Show fearful person a model who deals with object of fear without any consequences
- Through the model’s experience the patient’s fear should be vicariously extinguished
Coping models more effective than fearless models
45
Leading causes of death 1900 vs. 2000
```
In 1900- infectious diseases
- Pneumonia and influenza
- Tuberculosis
- Diarrhea, gastrointestinal enteritis
In 2000- influenced by lifestyle
- Heart disease
- Cancer
- Strokes
- Smoking= Leading preventable cause of death
```
46
Lifestyle interventions
designed to help change unhealthy behavior to healthy behavior
47
Preventing smoking
social influences approach
Use vignettes to apply:
- Attitude inoculation: expose teens to social pressures to smoke
- Social learning: show attractive teen models resisting pressures to smoke
- Public commitment: ask teens to announce their intentions not to smoke
48
Hawthorne studies
Designed from the standpoint of taylor’s ideas about “scientific management”
- Serendipitous finding: workers brought to special test rooms increased productivity no matter what change was made (e.g., increased or decreased lighting)
- Brought emphasis on human relations
49
Hawthorne effect
Specific: increased productivity when special attention is paid to workers
General: changes in research participants’ behavior that result because the participants know they are being studied
50
worker participation
allow workers to participate in decision making
associated with
- high levels of commitment, job satisfaction, motivation, performance
- low levels of emotional distress, turnover
- however most studies correlational
- pajama factory study: Participation lead to increased productivity, reduced aggression toward management, less absenteeism, fewer work slow-downs, fewer workers quitting
Best results with total participation
51
Leadership: contingency theory
Leadership style should match situation
Leadership style (assessed with the least preferred coworker scale)
- Task oriented: concerned about getting job done
- Relationship oriented: concerned about relationships
Situational control: favorableness depends on
- Leader-member relations
- Task structure
- Power
52
Leader match
application of contingency theory
Leaders use self-help manual and assess:
- own leadership style
- Leadership situation
If situation optimal for leaders style, then should be successful
If mismatch, follow the recommendations in manual to change situation
53
Leadership: social learning
- Leadership can be learned by observing effective leaders
- Use videotaped vignettes of model supervisor interacting with employees in particular situations
- Assessment: supervisors randomly assigned to program for 9 weeks or to a control condition
- Results: those in program exhibited better leadership skills on written tests, role playing tests, and in actual job performance
54
Lesko 18- contact hypothesis
- Contact hypothesis: prejudice stems from a lack of knowledge and exposure; increased interaction would lead to a reduction in hostility and prejudice
- Purpose: test the effect of intergroup contact on automatically activated racial attitudes
- Optimal conditions for intergroup contact: equal status, cooperation, common goals, and support of authorities
( College dormitory )
- Goals: assess the nature of interracial relationships and test the effect of intergroup contact on automatically activated attitudes in a real-life situation
- Measures: questionnaire, inventory of intergroup anxiety toward african americans, and priming procedure (unobtrusive)
- Results: those in interractial rooms showed significant reduction in intergroup anxiety
-- Automatically activated racial attitudes of white students in interracial rooms became more positive toward african americans
-- Decreased intergroup anxiety
-- Support for contact hypothesis
55
Lesko 25 - Stanford Prison Experiment
- We tend to attribute others’ behavior to their personality, but the SITUATION is more responsible
- Student volunteers randomly assigned to play the role of prisoner or guard in setting designed to convey a sense of the psychology of imprisonment
- Abuse and dominance from guard
- Had to end the experiment after 6 days (supposed to be 2 weeks) because it got out of control
- Dehumanization and anonymity
56
Lesko 40 - False Confessions
Reasons:
- People give up miranda rights and speak when could remain silent
- If they think conviction is inevitable no matter what
- Accused can come to believe that they actually did commit the crime
- The longer the police interrogate a suspect, the more likely the suspect is to become convinced himself
- Product of a false memory
Jurors more likely to vote guilty if a confession is included in the trial
Confessions can have a powerful effect on eyewitnesses
- False confessions can affect the memories of people who are potential alibis for defendants
Subjects significantly less likely to vote guilty when shown the entire interrogation
- Videotaping can protect defendant (Confession contaminates evidence)
57
Lesko 45 - Resilience
- Studied the contribution of a range of factors (cognitive, emotional, social support, coping) to psychological resilience
- Internet sample about 9/11
- Psychological resilience: the process of, capacity for, or outcome of successful adaptation despite challenging or threatening circumstances
- Outcome variables: psychological well-being, global distress
- Predictor variables: demographics, media exposure, emotional suppression, cognitive outlook, social support, coping
- Early negative changes in worldview was the most important contributor among the variables examined
- Person most likely to be resilient was someone who was open to their emotional reactions, who inhabited a social environment that did not constrain expression and discussion of those reactions, and who did not suffer a damaged worldview
