Final Exam

Question 1

Explain the anatomy of the brain

Answer 1

The brain consists of two types of cells: neurons and glia.
Neurons are individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information.
Activity of neurons is significant and relates to an organism’s behavior

Question 2

what are some qualities of Glial Cells

Answer 2

Glia are cells found throughout the nervous system and they provide various types of support for neurons.
Smaller than neurons
Human brain has equal parts neurons and glial

Question 3

What are some types of Glial Cells

Answer 3

There are many different types of glial cells and they have a wide range of critical functions. For example, some act like parents, providing nutrition, healing, protection, and physical support for the neurons. Some act like cleaners, removing debris from the brain. Some act like a miniature Pac Man from a video game, devouring dead and damaged cells.

Question 4

What are the 3 ways Glial Cells provide protection to the brain

Answer 4

Provide protection to the brain in 3 ways
Produce cerebrospinal fluid. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a colourless fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord. It has several functions, including serving to cushion the brain during an impact.
Second, they form the blood–brain barrier, which prevents foreign material, including some viruses and drugs, from entering the brain.
Third, they contribute to the immune system of the brain.

Question 5

How do Glial Cells contribute to braincells

Answer 5

The glial cells provide the neurons with nutrients and energy from the blood. Glial cells provide structure for the neurons, holding them in place and forming scar tissue if the brain is injured.
glial cells also insulate the neurons, allowing them to process information faster and with less energy.

Question 6

How do Glial Cells contribute to major disorders

Answer 6

Research shows that glial cells play a role in a variety of major disorders.
For example, dysfunction in glial cells may contribute to the cognitive impairment seen in schizophrenic disorders (Wang et al., 2015) and to some forms of depressive disorders

Question 7

what are some qualities of neurons

Answer 7

there are roughly 86 billion neurons in the human brain
A synapse is a junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next.
A vast majority of neurons communicate only with other neurons. However, a small minority receive signals from outside the nervous system (from sensory organs) or carry messages from the nervous system to the muscles that move the body.

Question 8

what are the five common properties of neurons

Answer 8

Neurons have 5 common properties
First, all neurons have a barrier, like a skin, that separates the inside of the cell from the outside. This barrier, called the cell membrane, has small channels or gates that allow, or prevent, molecules from entering or leaving the cell. This will become important when we

Second, each neuron has a cell body, also called a soma, which contains the nucleus and acts like a tiny factory where proteins and neurotransmitters (or at least the building blocks of neurotransmitters) are manufactured. (The word soma comes from the Greek word meaning body.) The cell body is where information from thousands of other cells is gathered and sorted out.

Third, all cells have dendrites, which gather much of the incoming information from other cells. Dendrites are the structures that branch out from the cell body. (Dendrite is a Greek word for tree.) Their main purpose is to increase the surface area of the neuron so that chemicals, released from thousands of other cells, can influence the activity of the neuron that the dendrites belong to.

Fourth, in addition to the many dendrites that branch out from the cell body, each neuron has a single main extension called the axon. The axon is a long, thin fibre that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or to muscles or glands. The axon’s main role is to conduct a brief electrical charge away from the cell body. Unlike dendrites, which are just a few millimeters in length, axons can be relatively long. For example, some axons that control movement connect the brain to the spinal cord and can be a meter in length. Some axons may be several meters long in a giraffe.

Fifth, though only one axon leaves each cell body, this axon can branch and each branch ends in an axon terminal. Axon terminals are where chemicals are released by the neuron to influence the activity of other neurons.

Question 9

what are the purpose of axons

Answer 9

In humans, many axons are wrapped in cells with a high concentration of a white, fatty substance called myelin. The myelin sheath is insulating material, derived from specialized glial cells.
When the myelin sheath is intact it helps to stabilize the axon structure and the patterns of connectivity in the neural network. It contributes to two big advantages.
First, it speeds up the transmission of signals that move along axons
The second benefit of the myelin sheath is that it is very efficient.

Question 10

what are the four processes that explains the activity of neurons

Answer 10

The activity of neurons can be understood by examining four processes: resting potential, action potential, synaptic transmission, and graded potentials.

Question 11

explain resting potential

Answer 11

RESTING POTENTIAL
The resting potential of a neuron is its stable, negative charge when the cell is inactive.
To create and maintain the resting potential, two ions are critical: potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+). There are small openings in the cell membrane, called gates or channels, which allow potassium to move more easily in and out of the cell. There are channels for sodium (Na+) as well, but they are usually closed.
Without the resting potential, the brain would not allow us to think, feel, learn, or move.

Question 12

explain action potential

Answer 12

ACTION POTENTIAL
action potential, which is a very brief shift in a neuron’s electrical charge that travels along an axon.
absolute refractory period, which is the minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin.
A limiting factor in the speed of the action potential is the size of the axon. Axons with a larger diameter have less resistance, so the speed of the action potential can be increased.

Question 13

explain Synaptic tranmission

Answer 13

Basically, each neuron makes a chemical and stores it in the terminal buttons. When a neuron is sufficiently stimulated, an action potential causes the chemical to be released into very tiny gaps between the neuron and adjacent neurons. These gaps are referred to as synaptic clefts.
These chemicals, known as neurotransmitters, transmit information from one neuron to another.

Question 14

Explain transportation and storage neurotransmitters

Answer 14

Transportation and storage. When molecules of the neurotransmitter are made, they are transported from the cell body to the axon terminal where they are stored. They are stored in small bead-like containers called synaptic vesicles.

Question 15

explain the release neurotransmitter

Answer 15

Release. When an action potential in the neuron reaches the axon terminal, the synaptic vesicles melt into the cell membrane, causing the release of the neurotransmitter into the synapse (Schwarz, 2008). Because this part of the membrane is before the synapse, it is called the presynaptic membrane.

Question 16

explain the binding neurotransmitter

Answer 16

3. Binding. The released molecules of neurotransmitter float across the gap and some bind with the membrane of the cell after the synapse. The molecules bind to specialized proteins called receptors. These receptors allow the molecules to influence whether this next cell, the postsynaptic cell, will have its own action potential. A specific neurotransmitter can bind only to receptor sites that its molecular structure will fit into, much like a key must fit a lock.

Question 17

explain autoreceptor activation neurotransmitter

Answer 17

5. Autoreceptor activation. Some neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the same neuron that released it. This type of receptor is called an autoreceptor. Autoreceptors only respond to neurotransmitters that have been released by the same neuron on which it is situated. Binding on these presynaptic receptors can regulate Steps 1 and 3. For example, this binding can decrease the synthesis and release of the neurotransmitter.

Question 18

explain reuptake neurotransmitter

Answer 18

Reuptake. Leftover and excess neurotransmitter molecules can be brought back in to the presynaptic region of the cell. This is one of the original recycling mechanisms. By taking the extra molecules out of the synapse, this can stop the effect of the neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell and reduce the amount of neurotransmitter that the presynaptic cell must make.

Question 19

explain degradation neurostransmitter

Answer 19

Degradation. Given that you are continually synthesizing neurotransmitters (Step 1) and recycling used neurotransmitters (Step 7), there needs to be a mechanism to ensure that you don’t end up with too much. Enzymes in the presynaptic region break down excess neurotransmitter molecules, which are then eliminated.

Question 20

what is the nature of all 8 steps of Synaptic transmission

Answer 20

The first four steps of synaptic transmission share a common purpose; they all increase the influence of the presynaptic cell on the postsynaptic cell. The last four steps share a common purpose as well; they are all involved in stopping the presynaptic cell from continuing to influence the postsynaptic cell.

Question 21

What are graded potentials

Answer 21

The final process is the trigger that takes a neuron from its resting potential to an action potential. This trigger is called the graded potential

Question 22

what are some patterns of neural activity

Answer 22

Normal development is characterized more by the elimination of old synapses appears than the creation of new synapses. The nervous system normally forms more synapses than needed and then gradually eliminates the less-active synapses
individual neurons do not influence behavior but that they are linked in complex networks he called cell assemblies. He formulated the Hebbian learning rule; when a neuron stimulates another neuron repeatedly, this produces changes in the synapse between them.
Long-term potentiation refers to a long lasting increase in neural excitability in synapses along a specific neural pathway.

Question 23

how do neurons influence other neurons

Answer 23

neurotransmitters are molecules that are released from the presynaptic region to allow one neuron to influence the firing rate of another neuron.

Question 24

what are 4 common properties of neurotransmitters and their influences

Answer 24

4 common properties of neural transmitters
1. They are synthesized in the neuron.
2. They are stored in the synaptic terminals.
3. They are released when the neuron has an action potential.
4. They are deactivated or removed from the synapse when they have completed their task.
Neurotransmitters have only one of two effects when they are released into the synapse. They either increase the chance of the postsynaptic cell firing (i.e., they produce excitatory postsynaptic potentials) or they decrease the chance of the postsynaptic cell firing (i.e., they produce inhibitory postsynaptic potentials).

Question 25

what is Acetylcholine

Answer 25

Acetylcholine (ACh) is present throughout the nervous system. It is the only transmitter between motor neurons and voluntary muscles. An inadequate supply of ACh in certain areas of the brain is associated with the memory losses seen in Alzheimer’s disease An agonist is a chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter. An antagonist is a chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter.

Question 26

What are Monoamines

Answer 26

The monoamines are a category of neurotransmitters that includes dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Monoamines regulate many aspects of everyday behavior. Serotonin appears to be one of several neurotransmitters that contribute to the regulation of sleep and arousal

Question 27

what is GABA

Answer 27

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) seems to produce only inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. GABA receptors are widely distributed in the brain and may be present at 40 percent of all synapses. GABA is involved in the regulation of anxiety in humans, and disturbances in GABA circuits may contribute to some types of anxiety disorders

Question 28

What are endorphins

Answer 28

endorphins—internally produced chemicals that resemble opiates in structure and effects.

Question 29

Explain the peripheral Nervous system

Answer 29

The peripheral nervous system is made up of all the nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord. Nerves are bundles of neuron fibers (axons) that are routed together in the peripheral nervous system.

Question 30

In the peripheral nervous system what is the somatic nervous system

Answer 30

THE SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM The somatic nervous system is made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors. Afferent nerve fibers are axons that carry information inward to the central nervous system from the periphery of the body. Efferent nerve fibers are axons that carry information outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body

Question 31

in the peripheral nervous system what is the Autonomic Nervous system

Answer 31

THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands. The sympathetic division is the branch of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body’s resources for emergencies. the parasympathetic division is the branch of the autonomic nervous system that conserves bodily resources.

Question 32

explain the central nervous system

Answer 32

the central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

Question 33

Explain the spinal cord and the brain

Answer 33

THE SPINAL CORD The spinal cord connects the brain to the rest of the body through the peripheral nervous system. THE BRAIN Anatomically, the brain is the part of the central nervous system that fills the upper portion of the skull. the brain contains billions of interacting cells that integrate information from inside and outside the body, coordinate the body’s actions, and enable human beings to talk, think, remember, plan, create, and dream.

Question 34

How can we research the brain

Answer 34

Case Study: One method involves examining changes in behaviour that accompany brain damage resulting from tumours, strokes, head injuries, and other misfortunes. Lesioning involves destroying a piece of the brain. It is typically done by inserting an electrode into a brain structure and passing a high frequency electric current through electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB), where a weak electric current is sent into a brain structure to stimulate it The electroencephalograph (EEG) is a device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time to show the functioning of the brain

Question 35

what is transcranial magnetic stimulation

Answer 35

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a technique that permits scientists to temporarily enhance or depress activity in a specific area of the brain. TMS has been used to explore whether specific areas of the brain are involved in visual–spatial and sensorimotor processing (Maffongelli et al., 2020; McKeefry et al., 2010), short-term memory (Silvantro & Cattaneo, 2010), and language

Question 36

What are the major regions of the brain

Answer 36

The brain can be divided into three major regions: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain.

Question 37

Explain the hindbrain

Answer 37

The hindbrain includes the cerebellum and two structures found in the lower part of the brainstem: the medulla and the pons. The cerebellum (“little brain”) is a large and deeply folded structure next to the back surface of the brainstem. The cerebellum is involved coordinating movement and is critical for our sense of equilibrium, or physical balance

Question 38

Explain the midbrain

Answer 38

The midbrain is the segment of the brainstem located between the hindbrain and the forebrain. Situated at the central core of the brainstem, the reticular formation helps with the modulation of muscle reflexes, breathing, and pain perception

Question 39

Explain the fore brain

Answer 39

The forebrain is the largest and most complex region of the brain, encompassing a variety of structures, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum The thalamus, hypothalamus, and limbic system form the core of the forebrain. All three structures are located near the top of the brainstem.

Question 40

Explain the Thalamus

Answer 40

THE THALAMUS: A RELAY STATION The thalamus is a structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex

Question 41

Explain the Hypothalamus

Answer 41

THE HYPOTHALAMUS: A REGULATOR OF BIOLOGICAL NEEDS The hypothalamus is a structure near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation of basic biological needs.

Question 42

Explain the Lymbic System (center of emotion)

Answer 42

The limbic system is a loosely connected network of structures located roughly along the border between the cerebral cortex and deeper subcortical areas The hippocampus and adjacent structures play a role in memory processes (Eichenbaum, 2013). Some theorists believe that the hippocampal region is responsible for the consolidation of memories for factual information and perhaps other types of memories The amygdala may play a central role in the learning of fear responses and the processing of other basic emotional responses The heaviest concentration appears to be where the medial forebrain bundle (a bundle of axons) passes through the hypothalamus.

Question 43

Explain the Cerebrum in the Lymbic system

Answer 43

The cerebral cortex is the convoluted outer layer of the cerebrum. the cerebral hemispheres are the right and left halves of the cerebrum The corpus callosum is the structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres. The temporal lobe (meaning near the temples) lies below the parietal lobe. Near its top, the temporal lobe contains an area devoted to auditory processing, called the primary auditory cortex. In the front of the brain, just behind your forehead, is the frontal lobe, the largest lobe in the human brain. It contains the principal areas that control the movement of muscles, the primary motor cortex. Mirror neurons are neurons that are activated by performing an action or by seeing another animal perform the same action. The portion of the frontal lobe to the front of the motor cortex is called the prefrontal cortex (see the inset in Figure 3.17). This area is disproportionately large in humans, accounting for about one third of the cerebral cortex (Huey et al., 2006). Its apparent contribution to certain types of decision making and key aspects of self-control

Question 44

Explain how the brain is malluable

Answer 44

Second, damage to incoming sensory pathways or the destruction of brain tissue can lead to neural reorganization Third, the adult brain can generate new neurons (Jin,2016). Historically, it was believed that neurogenesis -- the formation of new neurons—did not occur in adult humans. In sum, research suggests that the brain is not “hard-wired” the way a computer is. It appears that the neural wiring of the brain is flexible and constantly evolving.

Question 45

explain split brain procedures

Answer 45

In split-brain surgery, the bundle of fibers that connects the cerebral hemispheres (the corpus callosum) is cut to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures. Patients left brain could read words and their right one could draw

Question 46

Explain how to explore hemispheres of the brain

Answer 46

Researchers have used a variety of other approaches to explore hemispheric specialization in normal people. For example, brain-imaging studies reveal different patterns of activation for each hemisphere when participants work on specific cognitive tasks The left hemisphere is usually better at tasks involving verbal processing, such as language, speech, reading, and writing. The right hemisphere exhibits superiority on many tasks involving nonverbal processing, such as most spatial, musical, and visual recognition tasks and tasks involving the perception of emotions.

Question 47

explain the endocrine system

Answer 47

The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning.

Question 48

Explain hormones

Answer 48

Hormones are the chemicals released by the endocrine glands. Hormones are like neurotransmitters in the nervous system in that they are stored for subsequent release as chemical messengers, and once released, they bind to special receptors on target cells.

Question 49

Explain the Pituitary Gland

Answer 49

The pituitary gland releases a variety of hormones that are distributed throughout the body, stimulating activity in other endocrine glands.

Question 50

Explain Oxytocin

Answer 50

Oxytocin is a hormone released by the pituitary gland, which regulates reproductive behaviours. Oxytocin may facilitate the development of a sense of security, feelings of safety, and a highly tuned sensitivity to and empathy for others Oxytocin may increase trust in humans. In one study, research participants who inhaled an oxytocin spray trusted others more with their money than those in a control condition

Question 51

explain behavioural genetics

Answer 51

behavioural genetics—an interdisciplinary field that studies the influence of genetic factors on behavioural traits.

Question 52

explains chromosones and genes

Answer 52

CHROMOSOMES AND GENES Chromosomes are threadlike strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules that carry genetic information Genes are DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission. polygenic traits, or characteristics that are influenced by more than one pair of genes.

Question 53

Explain genotype vs Pheneotype

Answer 53

GENOTYPE VERSUS PHENOTYPE Genotype refers to a person’s genetic makeup. Phenotype refers to the ways in which a person’s genotype is manifested in observable characteristics.

Question 54

Explains Family Studies

Answer 54

In family studies, researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to assess how much they resemble one another on a specific trait. Family studies can indicate whether a trait runs in families. However, this correlation does not provide conclusive evidence that the trait is influenced by heredity because family members not only share more genes but they generally share more similar environments.

Question 55

Explain Twin studies

Answer 55

In twin studies researchers assess hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait. Identical (monozygotic) twins emerge from one zygote that splits for unknown reasons. Fraternal (dizygotic) twins result when two eggs are fertilized simultaneously by different sperm cells, forming two separate zygotes.

Question 56

Explain Adoption studies

Answer 56

Adoption studies assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents.

Question 57

Explain genetic mapping

Answer 57

Genetic mapping is a tool to determine the location and chemical sequence of specific genes on specific chromosomes. Hence, contrary to early expectations for genetic mapping techniques, it appears that scientists are not likely to identify a handful of specific genes that control intelligence, extraversion, musical talent, or other behavioral traits, including psychological disorders.

Question 58

What are CRISPRs

Answer 58

CRISPRs are a natural part of our immune systems. CRISPRs store a small section of harmful viruses in order to recognize them next time you are attacked. When CRISPRs recognize an invading virus, they can precisely snip the DNA of the virus so that it can’t replicate.

Question 59

What are epigenetics

Answer 59

Scientists repeatedly find that heredity and experience jointly influence most aspects of behaviour. Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve modifications to the DNA sequence.

Question 60

What is evolutionary Psychology

Answer 60

evolutionary psychology is a relatively new theoretical perspective in the field that analyzes behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive significance.

Question 61

what did Darwin contribute to contribute to evolutionary Psych

Answer 61

wanted to explain how characteristics of a species might change over generations and why these changes tended to be adaptive. First, he noted that organisms vary in endless ways, such as size, speed, strength, aspects of appearance, visual abilities, hearing capacities, digestive processes, and cell structure. Second, he noted that many of these characteristics are heritable—that is, they tend to be passed down from one generation to the next. Although genes and chromosomes had not yet been discovered, the concept of heredity was well established. Third, borrowing from the work of Thomas Malthus, he noted that organisms tend to produce more offspring than local resources (e.g., food and living space availability) could support. Fourth, building on this insight, Darwin argued that if a specific heritable trait contributes to an organism’s survival or reproductive success, organisms with that trait should produce more offspring than those without the trait (or those with less of the trait), and the prevalence of that trait should gradually increase over generations resulting in evolutionary change. fitness refers to the reproductive success (number of descendants) of an individual organism relative to the average reproductive success in the population. Variations in reproductive success are what really fuel evolutionary change.

Question 62

explain Behaviours as adapted traits

Answer 62

In addition to the evolution of physical characteristics in animals, Darwin recognized that natural selection was applicable to behavioural traits Many behavioural adaptations improve organisms’ chances of reproductive success.

Question 63

What are nerve cells

Answer 63

What is a nerve cell? (a neuron) Def: the communication links of the nervous system, they vary considerably in size and shape and are usually densely interconnected Parts of the Nerve Cell Synapse – the junction between the terminal button (on the end of an axon) of one neuron (pre-synaptic), and either The dendrite of another neuron (post-synaptic) The membrane of a muscle fibre, or A gland Synaptic Cleft - a fluid filled space between the two neurons The action potential reaches the terminal button at the end of the axon - the AP does not cross the synapse The terminal button contains vesicles These vesicles contain neurotransmitters

Question 64

What is the cell body

Answer 64

Cell Body (soma) – contains the nucleus & acts like a tiny factor where proteins & neurotransmitter & where the information from thousands of other cells is gathered and sorted out.

Question 65

What are dendrites

Answer 65

Dendrites – gather much of the incoming information from other cells & are the structures that branch out from the cell body Emanate from the Soma - receives most of the synaptic contacts from other neurons & send info to the Soma Some are smooth & some have bumps [dendritic spines - a cup to catch the info]

Question 66

What is an Axon

Answer 66

Axon – a long, thin fibre that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or to muscles or glands Carries messages [action potentials] away from the Soma towards other cells

Question 67

What are terminal Buttons

Answer 67

Terminal Buttons - the button-like endings of the axon branches, which release chemicals (neurotransmitters) into the synapses

Question 68

What are axon terminals

Answer 68

Axon Terminals – where chemicals are released by the neuron to influence the activity of other neurons

Question 69

what is a Myelin Sleath

Answer 69

Myelin Sheath – insulating material, derived from specialised glial cells [fatty insulation around many axons] Functions to insulate axons from accidentally receiving messages from other cells around them Functions to increase the speed of the action potential Nodes of Ranvier - the gaps between sections of myelin

Question 70

Explains the Steps of Action Potential

Answer 70

Initially, some ion channels in the axon membrane open, permitting Na+ to flow through. This causes a brief reversal in the charge of the axon (it goes from -70 mv to about +30 mv) Then, in response to this reversal in the axon’s charge, K+ ions flow out of the neuron, thereby restoring the neuron to its normal resting state However, now the neuron is imbalance (too much Ns+ inside & too much K+ outside). Thus, ion channels and ion transporters open to permit these two ions to return to their normal states (a re-balancing of the neuron’s chemical state) The action potential travels along the length of the neuron - as one section of the axon becomes depolarized (fires), it stimulates the next section to begin to depolarize - thus causing the next section to reach its threshold of excitation

Question 71

How to nerve impulses start

Answer 71

Neurons are stimulated by receptor cells [receptor cells are “gated” (stimulated) by the appropriate external stimulus (instead of being stimulated by another neuron)] The stimulus causes the neuron’s sodium channel to open Causing sodium ions to flow into the cell Causing a depolarization of the membrane potential & starting an action potential (the nerve impulses) Two examples: Chemical-gated sodium channels in the tongue (taste receptor cells) open when a certain channel in food binds to them Mechanically-gated ion channels in the hair cells of the inner ear (auditory receptor cells) open when they are distorted by sound vibrations In both cases, the newly-opened gates allow the cell membrane to begin to become “depolarized”

Question 72

what is the threshold of excitation

Answer 72

Threshold of Excitation - in order for a neuron to generate an action potential, it must be initially stimulated past the threshold of excitation (-50 mv) It must be depolarized from -70 to -50

Question 73

What is a synapse

Answer 73

Def: a junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next What happens at the synapse (how does neural communication happen across the synapse)? When a neural impulse reaches an axon’s terminal buttons, it triggers the release of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters, which diffuse across the synaptic cleft & bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron

Question 74

How to nerve cells work together in networks

Answer 74

A neuron sending a signal (presynaptic neuron) releases a chemical called a neurotransmitter, which binds to a receptor on the surface of the receiving (postsynaptic neuron). Neurotransmitters are released from presynaptic terminals, which may branch to communicate with several postsynaptic neurons

Question 75

how do nerve cells integrate signals

Answer 75

Incoming signals from other neurons are typically received through its dendrites. The outgoing signal to other neurons flows along its axon. A neuron may have many thousands of dendrites, but it will have only one axon.

Question 76

how do nerve cells learn

Answer 76

Each neuron learns by moving along the gradient of improvement as defined throughout the synaptic process. At the network & system level, the results in behaviour optimizes over time

Question 77

Explain Excitatory

Answer 77

Excitatory - the effects of the transmitter make it “more likely” that the post-synpatic neuron will fire (i.e., stimulates Na+ gates to open allowing some Na+ to enter the cell thereby moving the cell membrane charge closer to the threshold of excitation, called depolarization)

Question 78

Explain inhibitory

Answer 78

Inhibitory - the effects of the transmitter make it “less likely” that the post-synaptic neuron will fire (i.e. stimulates K+ gates to open allowing some K+ to exit the cell thereby moving the cell membrane charge farther from the threshold of excitation, called hyper-polarization)

Question 79

What is the medulla and where is it

Answer 79

The medulla: in charge of largely unconscious but vital functions, including circulating blood, breathing, maintaining muscle tone, and regulating reflexes such as sneezing, coughing, and salivating. attaches to the spinal cord In the Hindbrain

Question 80

What are the pons and where are they

Answer 80

The pons: includes a bridge of fibres that connects the brainstem with the cerebellum. Contains several clusters of cell bodies involved with sleep and arousal. In the Hindbrain

Question 81

what is the Reticular formation and where is it

Answer 81

The reticular formation: runs through both the hindbrain and midbrain. Helps with the modulation of muscle reflexes, breathing, and pain perception. Regulates sleep and arousal.

Question 82

explain the cerebral hemipheres

Answer 82

The cerebral hemispheres: the right and left halves of the cerebrum. The corpus callosum: the structure made of thick bands of fibre that connects the two cerebral hemispheres.

Question 83

how are each cerebral hemispheres divided

Answer 83

Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into four parts called lobes. The occipital lobe: at the back of the head, includes the cortical area, where most visual signals are sent and visual processing is begun. The parietal lobe: in front of the occipital lobe. It includes the area that registers the sense of touch, called the primary somatosensory cortex. Monitors the body’s position in space. The temporal lobe: below the parietal lobe. Comprehension of speech and language. The primary auditory cortex is near the top of the temporal lobe and is dedicated to auditory processing. The Frontal Lobe: the largest lobe and is located behind your forehead. Includes the primary motor cortex that controls the movement of muscles. Prefrontal cortex: contributes to certain decision making and key aspects of self-control. Accounts for ⅓ of the cerebral cortex.

Question 84

Explain the Intact brain

Answer 84

Perceptual asymmetries: looks at left-right imbalances in visual or auditory processing. The left hemisphere is usually better at tasks involving verbal processing, such as language, speech, reading, and writing. The right hemisphere exhibits superiority on many tasks involving nonverbal processing, such as most spatial, musical, and visual recognition tasks and tasks involving the perception of emotions.

Question 85

what are the forces of evolution

Answer 85

Fitness: refers to the reproductive success (number of descendants) of an individual organism relative to the average reproductive success in the population. Variations in reproductive success are what really fuel evolutionary change. Traits might contribute to evolution in two ways: by providing either a survival advantage or a reproductive advantage. Adaptation: is an inherited characteristic that has increased in a population (through natural selection) because it increased the probability of survival or reproduction during the time it emerged

Question 86

what are Psychophysics

Answer 86

The study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience. The first experimental psychologists focused on sensation and perception and called it psychophysics.

Question 87

Explain sensation vs perception

Answer 87

Sensation: the stimulation of sense organs. Involves the absorption of energy, such as light or sound waves, by sensory organs, such as the ears and eyes. Perception: the selection, organisation, and interpretation of sensory input. Involves organising and translating sensory input into something meaningful, such as your best friend’s face or other environmental stimuli.

Question 88

explain synthesia

Answer 88

Synthesia: a condition in which perceptual or cognitive activities (ex. Listening to music, reading) trigger exceptional experiences (ex. Colour, taste).

Question 89

Explain Sensation thresholds

Answer 89

Threshold: a dividing point between energy levels that do and do not have a detectable effect. Absolute threshold: for a specific type of sensory input is the minimum amount of stimulation that an organism can detect. define the boundaries of an organism’s sensory capabilities. there is no single stimulus intensity at which the subject jumps from no detection to completely accurate detection. As stimulus intensity increases, participants’ probability of responding to stimuli gradually increases. Just noticeable difference (JND): is the smallest difference in the amount of stimulation that a specific sense can detect. vary by sense. The smallest detectable difference is a fairly stable proportion of the size of the original stimulus. Weber’s Law: states that the size of a just noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the size of the initial stimulus. Different fractions apply to different types of sensory input. Ex. the Weber fraction for lifting weights is approximately 1/30. This means that you should be just able to detect the difference between a 300 gram weight and a 310 gram weight.

Question 90

what is signal detection theory

Answer 90

proposes that the detection of stimuli involves decision processes as well as sensory processes, which are both influenced by a variety of factors besides stimulus intensity.

Question 91

what is detectability

Answer 91

measured in terms of probability and depends on decision-making processes as well as sensory processes.

Question 92

what is crash course definition

Answer 92

Crash course definition: a model for predicting how and when a person will detect weak stimuli, partly based on context. (i.e. if the person is expecting the sound) Ex. Parents might not notice a loud train going by because they’re focused on their baby crying.

Question 93

what is sensory adaptation

Answer 93

a gradual decline in sensitivity due to prolonged stimulation. Ex. if the garbage in the kitchen smells it will start to fade the longer you stay in the room. The stench is still there, but your sensitivity to it decreases. an automatic, built-in process that keeps people tuned in to the changes rather than the constants in their sensory input.

Question 94

what is subliminal perception

Answer 94

the registration of sensory input without conscious awareness. Subliminal stimulation generally pro- duces weak effects that typically disappear in a short time. Ex. a film put a few frames that said “eat popcorn” into the film and flash by very quickly so it was undetectable. Popcorn sales then increased.

Question 95

how does the eye work

Answer 95

The eye serves 2 main purposes: They channel light to the neural tissue that receives it, called the retina Houses the tissue Each eye is a living optical instrument that creates an image of the visual world on the light-sensitive retina lining its inside back surface

Question 96

how is light transduced into neural energy

Answer 96

There, light is transduced into neural energy by about 200 million photoreceptor cells. This is where the information carried by the light about distant objects and colors starts being encoded by our brain. There are two different types of photoreceptors: rods and cones. The human eye contains more rods than cones.

Question 97

what is the lens in the eye

Answer 97

the transparent eye structure that focuses the light rays falling on the retina The lens is made up of relatively soft tissue, capable of adjustments that facilitate a process called accommodation Accommodation - occurs when the curvature of the lens adjusts to alter visual focus

Question 98

what are the pupils

Answer 98

the opening in the centre of the iris that helps regulate the amount of light passing into the rear chamber of the eye When the pupil constructs, it lets less light into the eye, but it sharpens the image falling on the retina. When the pupil dilates (opens), it lets more light in, but the image is less sharp

Question 99

what are saccades

Answer 99

eye movements

Question 100

What is a retina

Answer 100

Retina - the neural tissue lining the inside back surface of the eye; it absorbs light, processes images, and sends visual information to the brain A piece of the central nervous system that happens to be located in the eyeball A paper-thin sheet of neural tissue, it contains a complex network of specialized cells arranged in layers

Question 101

What is an optic disk

Answer 101

Optic Disk - a place in the retina where the optic nerve fibres exit the eye

Question 102

what is the fovea

Answer 102

Fovea - a tiny spot in the centre of the retina that contains only cones; visual acuity is greatest at this spot When you want to see something sharply, you usually move your eyes to centre the object in the fovea

Question 103

What is a receptive feild

Answer 103

Receptive Field - a visual cell in the retinal area that, when stimulated, affects the firing of that cell

Question 104

Explain cones and rods

Answer 104

Cones - specialized visual receptors that play a key role in daylight vision and colour vision The cones handles most of our daytime vision because bright lights dazzle the rods Rods - specialized visual receptors that play a key role in night vision and peripheral vision Rods handle night vision because they are more sensitive than cones to dim light The retina contains millions of receptor cells that are sensitive to light. Surprisingly, these receptors are located in the innermost layer of the retina.

Question 105

What is optic chiasm

Answer 105

Optic Chiasm - the point at which the optic nerves from the inside half of each eye cross over and then project to the opposite half of the brain This arrangement ensures that signals from both eyes go to both hemispheres of the brain After reaching the optic chiasm, the optic nerve fibres diverge along two pathways. The main pathway projects into the thalamus, the brain’s major relay station. Then synapse in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN), visual signals are processed here then distributed to areas in the occipital lobe (primary visual cortex). The second visual pathway leaving the optic chiasm branches off to an area in the midbrain called the superior colliculus before travelling through the thalamus and on to the occipital lobe.

Question 106

How is visual information processed

Answer 106

Visual signals are processed in the LGN and then distributed to areas in the occipital lobe that make up the primary visual cortex Visual information from the retina is relayed through the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus to the primary visual cortex — a thin sheet of tissue which is located in the occipital lobe in the back of the brain.

Question 107

How does the eye percieve colour

Answer 107

Perceived colour is primarily a function of the dominant light wavelength in these mixtures. There are two kinds of colour mixture: subtractive and additive. Subtractive colour: works by removing some wavelengths of light, leaving less light than was originally there. Additive colour: works by superimposing lights, putting more light in the mixture than exists in any one light by itself.

Question 108

What is the trichromatic theory

Answer 108

Def - holds that the human eye has three types of receptors with differing sensitivities to different light wavelengths Helmholtz theorized that the eye contains specialized receptors sensitive to the specific wavelengths associated with red, green, and blue. The impetus for the trichromatic theory was the demonstration that a light of any colour can be matched by the additive mixture of three primary colours Colourblindness encompasses a variety of deficiencies in the ability to distinguish among colours

Question 109

What is the opponent process theory

Answer 109

Def - holds that colour perception depends on receptors that make antagonistic responses to three pairs of colours The three pairs of opponent colours posited by Hering were red versus green, yellow verus blue, and black verus white The antagonistic processes in this theory provide plausible explanations for complementary after images

Question 110

What are complimentary colours

Answer 110

pairs of colours that produce grey tones when mixed together. The various pairs of complementary colours can be arranged in a colour circle

Question 111

What is an after image

Answer 111

a visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed

Question 112

How do the two visual theories work together to help us understand visual perception

Answer 112

The trichromatic theory helps to explain how each type of cone receptor detects different wavelengths in light. On the other hand, the opponent process theory helps explain how these cones connect to the nerve cells that determine how we actually perceive a colour in our brain.

Question 113

How might perception of colour differ for each person

Answer 113

Individual variations in colour perception may not purely be a matter of the nature and number of the cones (or receptors) in the retina. It can also be a result of the fact that people with different numbers of cones calibrate the input from the retina in different ways

Question 114

what is a reversable figure

Answer 114

a drawing that is compatible with two interpretations that can shift back and forth These are ambiguous

Question 115

what is a perceptual set

Answer 115

a readiness to perceive a stimulus in a particular way

Question 116

what is feature analysis

Answer 116

the process of detecting specific elements in visual input and assembling them into a more complex form

Question 117

explain bottom up and top down processing

Answer 117

Bottom-Up Processing - a progression from individual elements to the whole Top-Down Processing - a progression from the whole to the elements

Question 118

what are the gestalt principles

Answer 118

help explain some of the factors that influence form perception Proximity - elements that are close to one another tend to be grouped together Closure - viewers tend to supply missing elements to close or complete a familiar figure Similarity - elements that are similar tend to be grouped together Simplicity - viewers tend to organize elements in the simplest way possible Continuity - viewers tend to see elements in ways that produce smooth continuation

Question 119

what is a distal stimuli

Answer 119

stimuli that lie in the distance (i.e., in the world outside the body). Objects that you’re looking at

Question 120

what is a proximal stimuli

Answer 120

the stimulus energies that impinge directly on sensory receptors Images formed by patterns of light falling on your retina that your eyes do “touch.”

Question 121

what is a perceptual hypothesis

Answer 121

an inference about which distal stimuli could be responsible for the proximal stimuli sensed The square in Figure 4.21 may project a trapezoidal image on your retinas, but your perceptual system “guesses” correctly that it’s a square—and that’s what you see.

Question 122

explain depth perception

Answer 122

involves interpretation of visual cues that indicate how near or far away objects are. To make judgments of distance, people rely on quite a variety of clues, classified as binocular and monocular

Question 123

explain binocluar depth

Answer 123

cues are clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes Retinal Disparity - refers to the fact that objects project images to slightly different locations on the right and left retinas, so the right and left eyes see slightly different views of the object

Question 124

explain mononocular depth

Answer 124

cues are clues about distance based on the image in either eye alone Pictorial Depth - clues about distance that can be given in a flat picture (ex. Texture, shadowing)

Question 125

what is perceptual constancy

Answer 125

a tendency to experience a stable perception in the face of continually changing sensory input

Question 126

what are visal illusions

Answer 126

nvolves an apparently inexplicable discrepancy between the appearance of a visual stimulus and its physical reality Visual illusions reveal that visual perceptions drive home the point that people go through life formulating perceptual hypotheses about what lies out there in the real world

Question 127

explain sounds

Answer 127

Sound waves are vibrations of molecules, which means that they must travel through some physical medium, such as air. They move at a fraction of the speed of light. Sound waves are usually generated by vibrating objects, such as a guitar string, a loudspeaker cone, or your vocal cords However, sound waves can also be generated by forcing air past a chamber (as in a pipe organ), or by suddenly releasing a burst of air (as when you clap) Light waves, sound waves are characterized by their amplitude, their wavelength, and their purity.

Question 128

explain the external ear

Answer 128

depends on the vibration of air molecules. consists mainly of the pinna, a sound-collecting cone. When you cup your hand behind your ear to try to hear better, you are augmenting that cone. Sound waves collected by the pinna are funnelled along the auditory canal toward the eardrum, a taut membrane that vibrates in response.

Question 129

explain the middle ear

Answer 129

depends on the vibration of movable bones. the vibrations of the eardrum are transmitted inward by a mechanical chain made up of the three tiniest bones in your body (the ossicles: the hammer, anvil, and stirrup) The ossicles form a three-stage lever system that converts relatively large movements with little force into smaller motions with greater force. The ossicles serve to amplify tiny changes in air pressure

Question 130

explain the inner ear

Answer 130

depends on waves in a fluid. consists largely of the cochlea. Sound enters the cochlea through an oval window, which is vibrated by the ossicles. The ear’s neural tissue, analogous to the retina in the eye, lies within the cochlea.

Question 131

what is the cochlea

Answer 131

a fluid-filled, coiled tunnel that contains the receptors for hearing

Question 132

what is the basilar membrane

Answer 132

runs the length of the spiralled cochlea, holds the auditory receptors The auditory receptors are called hair cells because of the tiny bundles of hairs that protrude from them. Waves in the fluid of the inner ear stimulate the hair cells. The hair cells convert this physical stimulation into neural impulses that are sent to the brain. These signals are routed through the thalamus to the auditory cortex, which is located mostly in the temporal lobes of the brain.

Question 133

what is the place theory of hearing

Answer 133

holds that perception of pitch corresponds to the vibration of different portions, or places, along the basilar membrane Assumes that hair cells at various locations respond independently and that different sets of hair cells are vibrated by different sound frequencies

Question 134

what is the frequency theory of hearing

Answer 134

holds that perception of pitch corresponds to the rate or frequency at which the entire basilar membrane This theory views the basilar membrane as more like a drumhead than a harp.

Question 135

how do the theories of hearing work toghether

Answer 135

the competition between these two theories is similar to dispute between the trichromatic and opponent process theories of colour vision. Both are somewhat correct: the current thinking is that pitch perception depends on both place and frequency coding of vibrations along the basilar membrane.

Question 136

what is auditory localization

Answer 136

locating the source of a sound in space The process of recognizing where a sound is coming from is analogous to recognizing depth or distance in vision. Both processes involve spatial aspects of sensory input. Human ears are set apart contributes to auditory localization, just as the separation of the eyes contributes to depth perception Two cues are particularly important: the intensity (loudness) and the timing of sounds arriving at each ear.

Question 137

what is the gustitory system

Answer 137

The sensory system for taste. Stimuli for the sense of taste are soluble chemical substances (dissolvable in water). Gustatory receptors are clusters of taste cells found in the taste buds, lining the trenches around tiny bumps on the tongue. When these cells absorb chemicals dissolved in saliva, they trigger neural impulses that are routed through the thalamus to the insular cortex.

Question 138

what are the types of taste

Answer 138

There are four primary tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, and salty. There is a fifth suggested primary taste called umami, for savoury tastes such as in cheese or meats. Sensitivity to the primary tastes is distributed somewhat unevenly across the tongue.

Question 139

how do people differ in thier ability to taste

Answer 139

Basic taste preferences appear to be innate and to be automatically regulated by physiological mechanisms, but taste preferences are largely learned and heavily influenced by social processes. This leads to ethnic and cultural disparities (ex. worms/fish eyes may seem disgusting in western culture but delicacies in other cultures) “Non tasters:” tend to have about one-quarter as many taste buds per square centimetre as people at the other end of the spectrum. “Supertasters:” have specialised taste receptors that are not found in nontasters More sensitive to certain sweet and bitter substances. Less likely to be fond of sweets = better eating habits. React more negatively to alcohol/smoking = reduces addiction. 25% of ppl are non tasters, 25% are supertasters, 50% fall in between: “medium tasters.” This means two ppl may taste the same food but not have the same sensory experience.

Question 140

what is flavour

Answer 140

a combination of taste, smell, and the tactile sensation of food in one’s mouth. Nose and mouth work together to produce the flavours you experience. Retronasal olfaction is a term used to refer to “sensations evoked by volatiles travelling from the mouth to the nasal cavity through the retronasal space.” If you have a cold and your nose is stuffy, a meal that would usually be your favourite might taste bland.

Question 141

what is the olfactory system

Answer 141

The sensory system for smell. The physical stimuli are chemical substances—volatile ones that can evaporate and be carried in the air. These chemical stimuli are dissolved in fluid—specifically, the mucus in the nose. The receptors for Olfactory bulb smell are olfactory cilia, hair-like structures located in the upper portion of the nasal passages. Resemble taste cells in that they have a short life and are constantly being replaced. Olfactory receptors have axons that synapse with cells in the olfactory bulb and then are routed directly to the olfactory cortex in the temporal lobe and other areas in the cortex. Smell is the only sensory system that is not routed through the thalamus before it projects onto the cortex. Specific odours trigger responses in different combinations of receptors Mechanism of communication for some animals. Pheromones: chemical messages, typically imperceptible, that can be sent by one organism and received by another member of the same species.

Question 142

explain feeling pain

Answer 142

Crucial to survival, it is a warning system. The receptors for pain are mostly free nerve endings in the skin. Pain messages are transmitted to the brain via two types of pathways that pass through different areas in the thalamus.

Question 143

what are the pain pathways

Answer 143

The Fast Pathway: registers localised pain and relays it to the cortex in a fraction of a second. The system that hits you with sharp pain when you first cut your finger. mediated by thicker, myelinated neurons called A-delta fibres. The Slow Pathway: lags a second or two behind the fast system. Carries info about temperature, conveys the less localized, longer lasting, aching or burning pain that comes after the initial injury. depends on thin, unmyelinated neurons called C fibres.

Question 144

what is the gate control theory of pain

Answer 144

Cognitive and emotional pro- cesses that unfold in higher brain centres can some- times block pain signals coming from peripheral receptors. Gate-control theory: holds that incoming pain sensations must pass through a “gate” in the spinal cord that can be closed, thus blocking ascending pain signals. This imaginary gate can be closed by signals from peripheral receptors or by signals from the brain (this can help explain how factors such as attention and expectations can shut off pain signals.)

Question 145

explain how to control pain

Answer 145

Endorphins: are the body’s own natural morphine-like painkillers, which are widely distributed in the central nervous system. play a key role when distractions temporarily reduce the experience of pain. Discovery of a descending neural pathway that mediates the suppression of pain. originates in an area of the midbrain. Probably initiated by endorphins. Certain types of glial cells may contribute to the regulation of pain. Two types of glia in the spinal cord play a role in chronic pain. Schwann Cells: make up the mesh-like network that may initiate and maintain the sensa- tion of certain types of pain.

Question 146

explain the puzzles in pain research

Answer 146

The subjective nature of pain is illustrated by placebo effects. many people suffering from pain report relief when given a placebo—an inert “sugar pill” that is presented to them as if it were a painkilling drug Contextual factors influence the experience of pain. When given the contextual support of a loved one (i.e. romantic partner), the experience of the pain is reduced. The social support provided to us by our significant others can be a source of support that mitigates both psychological and physical pain. The psychological element in pain perception becomes clear when something distracts your attention from pain and the hurting temporarily disappears. Ex. you cut your finger, but then your child yells that there’s a fire, so you run to your child and temporarily forget about the pain. This can be reversed: the more someone is concerned/has intrusive thoughts about an upcoming surgery, the more pain medication they request after the surgery.

Question 147

what is the kinesthic system

Answer 147

monitors the positions of the various parts of the body. Some receptors are in your joints (bending), some are in muscles (tautness/extension) Most kinesthetic stimulation is transmitted to the brain along the same pathway as tactile stimulation. (but kept separate)

Question 148

what is the vestibular system

Answer 148

responds to gravity and keeps you informed of your body’s location in space. Provide a sense of balance/equilibrium, compensates for changes in the body’s position. shares space in the inner ear with the auditory system. Semicircular canals are the largest part of the system. rotational motion of the head is uniquely represented by a combination of fluid flows in the semicircular canals. These shifts in fluid are detected by hair cells similar to those found along the basilar membrane in the cochlea.

Question 149

What is consciousness

Answer 149

Consciousness: is the awareness of internal and external stimuli. We even seem to maintain some degree of awareness when we are asleep. Rarely does consciousness come to a standstill, this flow is called the stream of consciousness.

Question 150

What is mind wandering

Answer 150

Mind wandering: people’s experience of task-unrelated thoughts. Thoughts that are not related to what they are intentionally trying to do at a given moment. People spend 15-50% of their time mind wandering. The processes and structures in the brain that are involved in mind wandering are the default mode network and the frontoparietal network, among others

Question 151

Explain Consciousness and brain activity

Answer 151

The most commonly used indicator of variations in consciousness has been the EEG. The electroencephalograph (EEG): a device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp. Summarises the rhythm of cortical activity in the brain in terms of line tracings called brain waves. Vary in amplitude (height) and frequency (cycles per second, abbreviated cps). Human brain-wave activity is usually divided into four principal bands, based on frequency. beta (13–24 cps): normal waking thought, alert problem solving. alpha (8–12 cps): deep relaxation, blank mind, meditation. theta (4–7 cps): light sleep. delta (under 4 cps): deep, dreamless sleep.

Question 152

Explain biological rythyms

Answer 152

Variations in consciousness are shaped in part by biological rhythms. Biological rhythms: periodic fluctuations in physiological functioning. means that organisms have internal “biological clocks” that somehow monitor the passage of time. Circadian rhythms: the 24-hour biological cycles found in humans and many other species. influential in the regulation of sleep, producing rhythmic variations in blood pressure, urine production, hormonal secretions, etc. Leave individuals physiologically primed to fall asleep most easily at a particular time of day, varies from person to person.

Question 153

What happens if you ignore a carcadain rythym

Answer 153

The quality of your sleep suffers and proper sleep plays an important role in promoting good physical and psychological health. Ex. jet-lag, rotating night shifts at a job. These work schedules can have a negative impact on employees’ productivity at work, social relations, and mental health. Linked to a higher incidence of many physical diseases, including cancer, diabetes, ulcers, high blood pressure, and heart disease, as well as elevated mortality With advancing age, individuals take longer to realign their circadian rhythms. Social jet lag: waking up earlier on weekdays due to alarm clocks and work, and sleeping later on weekends. May contribute to an increased risk for obesity and cardiovascular symptoms

Question 154

How would you realign a circadian rhythm

Answer 154

Giving people small doses of the hormone melatonin appears to regulate the human biological clock. Carefully timed exposure to bright light as a treatment to realign the circadian rhythms of rotating shift workers in industrial settings. Can accelerate workers’ adaptation to a new sleep–wake schedule, leading to improvements in sleep quality, alertness during work hours, and alertness for the drive home. More ways to help rotating shift workers: carefully planning their rotation schedules to reduce the severity of their circadian disruption, progressively later starting times, and longer periods between shift changes.

Question 155

Explain the sleep cycle

Answer 155

The brain is not “shut down” during sleep, we actually experience quite a bit of physical and mental activity throughout the night. Electromyograph (EMG): records muscular activity and tension. Electrooculograph (EOG): records eye movement. It takes people an average of 25 minutes to fall asleep. Depends on how long it has been since the person has last slept, where the person is in their circadian cycle, amount of noise/light, age, desire to sleep, boredom, caffeine/drug intake, stress level, etc.

Question 156

What is stage one of the sleep cycle

Answer 156

Transitional stage of light sleep lasts 1-12 minutes. Breathing and heart rate slow, muscle tension and body temp declines. Alpha waves turn into lower frequency Theta waves. Hypnic jerks: brief muscular contractions that occur as people fall asleep.

Question 157

What is stage two of the sleep cycle

Answer 157

Respiration rate, heart rate, muscle tension, and body temperature continue to decline. Lasts 30-60 minutes. Sleep spindles: brief bursts of higher-frequency brain waves.

Question 158

What are stage 3 and 4 of the sleep cycles

Answer 158

Body moves into a deep sleep Slow-wave sleep: high-amplitude, low-frequency delta waves become prominent in EEG recordings. Stay here for roughly 30 minutes, then reverse and gradually move upward through the lighter stages

Question 159

Explain REM sleep

Answer 159

A relatively deep stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements; high-frequency, low-amplitude brain waves; and vivid dreaming. When sleepers are supposed to reach stage 1 again, they usually go into REM sleep. Can be seen using EOG or by watching someone’s eyelids physically move. Deep sleep, hard to wake someone from it. Irregular breathing/pulse rate, muscles are relaxed and sleeper is virtually paralyzed. Although REM is a relatively deep stage of sleep, EEG activity is dominated by high-frequency beta waves that resemble those observed when people are alert and awake. This is probably related to the association between REM sleep and dreaming. Dreaming is more frequent, vivid, memorable, emotional, dramatic and rich in characters during REM sleep. Brain activity during sleep is central to consolidation of information acquired during the day. Different types of sleep are important for different types of learning. Non-REM (NREM) sleep consists of sleep stages 1-4.

Question 160

Explain the repitition of the sleep cycle

Answer 160

During the night, people usually repeat the sleep cycle about four times, and the cycle changes gradually. The first REM period lasts only a few minutes. Subsequent REM periods get longers, peaking at 40-60 minutes long. NREM stages tend to get shorter. Most slow-wave sleep occurs early in the sleep cycle, and REM sleep tends to pile up in the second half of the sleep cycle.

Question 161

Explain age trends in relation to sleep patterns

Answer 161

There seems to be a clear relationship between age and our sleep patterns. Canadians between the ages of 15 and 24 reported the greatest sleep time. Those between 35 and 44 reported the least sleep. Likely due to stress and work/family roles. Newborn babies' sleep cycles have two sleep types–REM and NREM sleep. They will sleep 6-8 times in 24 hrs, usually sleeping more than 16 hrs. Infants spend more of their sleep time in the REM stage than adults. During the remainder of the first year, the REM portion of infants’ sleep declines to roughly 30 percent. Older people may need less sleep than young people, as they get less sleep during the night yet are less tired during the day. Although sleep complaints escalate with age, much of this escalation is due to increases in health problems that interfere with sleep.

Question 162

explain the neural and evolutionary bases for sleep

Answer 162

One brain structure that is important to sleep and wakefulness is the reticular formation in the core of the brainstem The ascending reticular activating system (ARAS): consists of the afferent fibres running through the reticular formation that influence physiological arousal. Activity in the pons and adjacent areas in the midbrain seems to be critical to the generation of REM sleep. Various areas in the hypothalamus are important for the regulation of sleep and wakefulness. One hypothesis of sleep’s evolutionary significance is that sleep evolved to conserve organisms’ energy. Ex. in humans energy consumption by the brain is reduced by about 30 percent during sleep. Another hypothesis is that the inactivity of sleep is adaptive because it reduces exposure to predators and the consumption of precious resources. A third hypothesis is that sleep is adaptive because it helps animals restore bodily resources depleted by waking activities.

Question 163

explain sleep deprivation

Answer 163

not as detrimental as most people subjectively feel it to be. Evidence suggests that sleep deprivation may be a major social problem, undermining efficiency at work and contributing to countless accidents. Occurs when people make do with substantially less sleep than normal over a period of time. Many sleep experts believe that much of North American society suffers from chronic sleep deprivation. Children who are sleep deprived show deficits in emotional regulation, attention, and memory, among other things. Sleep deprivation has also been blamed for a large proportion of transportation accidents and mishaps in the workplace. Sleep deprivation also appears to increase susceptibility to palatable, high-calorie foods and to undermine the self-control that is crucial to resisting temptation.

Question 164

explain sleep loss

Answer 164

accumulating evidence suggests that sleep loss can affect physiological processes in ways that may undermine physical health.

Question 165

what is insomnia

Answer 165

the most common sleep disorder, refers to chronic problems in getting adequate sleep that result in daytime fatigue and impaired functioning. It occurs in three basic patterns: 1) difficulty in falling asleep initially 2) difficulty in remaining asleep 3) persistent early-morning awakening Insomnia is associated with reduced productivity; increased absenteeism at work; an elevated risk for accidents, anxiety, and depression; and notable increases in quite a variety of serious health problems.

Question 166

what is narcolepsy

Answer 166

a disease marked by sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking periods. Going directly from wakefulness into REM sleep.

Question 167

What is sleep apnea

Answer 167

a disease marked by sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking periods. Going directly from wakefulness into REM sleep.

Question 168

What are night terrors

Answer 168

abrupt awakenings from NREM sleep, accompanied by intense autonomic arousal and feelings of panic. produce remarkable accelerations of heart rate, usually occur during slow wave sleep (N3) early in the night. Let out piercing cry, bolt upright, and then stare into space. Do not usually recall a coherent dream, but may remember a simple, frightening image. The panic normally fades quickly, and a return to sleep is fairly easy.

Question 169

what is Somnambulism (sleepwalking)

Answer 169

occurs when a person arises and wanders about while remaining asleep. Episodes can last from a minute or two up to 30 minutes. Associated with prior sleep deprivation and increased stress

Question 170

What is REM sleep behaviour disorder

Answer 170

marked by potentially troublesome dream enactments during REM periods. People who exhibit this syndrome may talk, yell, gesture, flail about, or leap out of bed during their REM dreams. The cause of RBD appears to be deterioration in the brainstem structures that are normally responsible for immobilisation during REM periods.

Question 171

What are nightmares

Answer 171

anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to awakening, usually from REM sleep.

Question 172

Explain dreams

Answer 172

College students often dream quite a bit about sex, aggression, and misfortune, they also dream about negative and potentially traumatic events. Typically, dreams are self-centred; people dream mostly about themselves. The content of dreams can also be affected by stimuli experiences while one is dreaming.

Question 173

How are dreams effected by real life

Answer 173

What people dream about is affected by what is going on in their lives. Ex. a study showed that participants shown media content depicting violence/sexuality before bedtime were more likely to report violent or sexual dreams that night. Ex. if youre struggling with financial problems, worried about your career future, conflicted about your partner, (emotional significance) it’s more likely to appear in your dreams. The content of our dreams can also be affected by stimuli experienced while dreaming. Ex. spray water on sleeping participants' hands while in REM stage, participants who stayed asleep had largely dreamt of water in their dreams. Like rain falls, pools, floods, etc.

Question 174

What is the wishfulfillment theory of dreaming

Answer 174

people fulfil ungratified needs from waking hours through wishful thinking in dreams. Ex. someone who is sexually frustrated may have highly erotic dreams. Manifest Content - consists of the plot of a dream at the surface level. Latent Content - the hidden or disguised meaning of the events in the plot.

Question 175

What is the problems solving view of dreams

Answer 175

There is considerable continuity between waking and sleeping thought. Dreams provide an opportunity to work through everyday problems.

Question 176

What is the activation- synthesis model of dreaming

Answer 176

dreams are side effects of the neural activation that produces “wide-awake” brain waves during REM sleep. Dreams are simply the by-product of bursts of activity emanating from subcortical areas in the brain.

Question 177

What is hypnosis

Answer 177

a systematic procedure that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility. Hypnotic Induction: the steps undertaken by a hypnotist to establish the state or conditions required for hypnosis to occur.

Question 178

what does prominent hypnosis phenomena include

Answer 178

Anaesthesia - drugs are more reliable, but hypnosis can be surprisingly effective in the treatment of both acute and chronic pain. Sensory distortions and hallucinations - hypnotized participants may be led to experience auditory or visual hallucinations. They may hear sounds or see things that are not there, or fail to hear or see stimuli that are present. Disinhibition - hypnosis can sometimes reduce inhibition that would normally prevent participants from acting in ways they would see as unacceptable. Posthypnotic Suggestions and Amnesia - suggestions made during hypnosis may influence a participant’s later behaviour. The most common post hypnotic suggestion is the creation of posthypnotic amnesia.

Question 179

Explain the social-cognitive theory of hypnosis

Answer 179

- hypnosis produces a normal mental state in which suggestible people act out the role of a hypnotic participant and behave as they think hypnotised people are supposed to. Hypnosis is not the result of a person being in a “trance” but rather results from everyday processes including an individual’s expectations and attitudes. No special state of consciousness is required to explain hypnotic feats.

Question 180

Explain hypnosis as an alternate state of consciousness

Answer 180

hypnosis creates a dissociation in consciousness. Dissociation - a splitting off of mental processes into two separate, simultaneous streams of awareness. Hilgard theorizes that hypnosis splits consciousness into two streams: 1) communication with the hypnotist and the external world 2) a difficult-to-detect “hidden observer” Hilgard believes that many hypnotic effects are a product of this divided consciousness

Question 181

What are psycoactive drugs

Answer 181

Def - chemical substances that modify mental, emotional, or behavioural functioning. Not all psychoactive drugs produce effects that lead to recreational use. Generally, people prefer drugs that elevate their mood or produce other pleasurable alterations in consciousness.

Question 182

What are opioids

Answer 182

natural or synthetic substances that are capable of relieving pain Can produce an overwhelming sense of euphoria or well-being. Common side effects include lethargy, nausea, and impaired mental and motor functioning Ability to tolerate certain dose of opioid is rapid, tolerance builds quickly People get addicted quickly and over use drug Long term health risks- infectious diseases, accidents, immunosuppression, overdose Change in environment can cause the drug to have a stronger effect When are narcotics prescribed and used Pain management - only recommended for short term use Addiction management Methadone - long acting opioid used to replace short acting opioids, effects are slower to take effect and last longer

Question 183

what are sedatives

Answer 183

sleep-inducing drugs that tend to decrease central nervous system activation and behavioural activity The desired effect is a euphoria similar to that produced by drinking large amounts of alcohol. Feelings of tension or dejection are replaced by a relaxed, pleasant state of intoxication, accompanied by loosened inhibitions Tolerance is rapid and build quickly Risk of physical and psychologically dependant on sedatives b Most long term health risks have to do with causing an accident When are sedatives used or prescribed Can be helpful to sleep, insomnia Anxiety disorders Panic disorders Psychotic disorders Very useful, only use when needed Benzodiazepines (Xanax Highly addictive, only recommended for 2-4 weeks or after other interventions were attempted

Question 184

What are stimulants

Answer 184

drugs that tend to increase central nervous system activation and behavioural activity Produce a euphoria very different from that created opioids or sedatives; they produce a buoyant, elated, energetic “I can conquer the world” feeling accompanied by increased alertness Side effects vary with dosage and potency but may include restlessness, anxiety, and insomnia. Short term effects - increased blood pressure, increased talkativeness, insomnia Rapid tolerance Moderate risk of physical dependance High risk of psychological dependance Health risks Sleep problems, malnutrition, nasal damage, hypertension, respiratory disease, overdose When are they prescribed and used Attention Attention deficit disorders Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Keep focused Wakefulness Narcolespy Example - caffeine, most commonly used psychological drug in the western world Taken in liquids reaches the body in 5 minutes and effects can be seen in 30 minutes and last up to 4 hours Increase neural activity, postpone fatigue, help with simple intellectual tasks, can disrupt quality, quantity and onset of sleep Amphetamines and cocaine Blocks reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin Bad for heart, large withdrawal rate

Question 185

What are hallocenogens

Answer 185

- a diverse group of drugs that have powerful effects on mental and emotional functioning, marked most prominently by distortions in sensory and perceptual experience Produce euphoria, increased sensory awareness, and a distorted sense of time. Some users, they lead to profound, dreamlike, “mystical” feelings that are difficult to describe Dilated pupils, emotional swings, panic reaction Gradual tolerance building No serious health risk, may end up hurting themselves When might we use or prescribe hallucinogens Help in therapeutic settings Treatment : microdosing - small amounts of drug, goal is to not get high but still has effect on stimulating serotonin Ecstasy (MDMA) - functions as both amphetamine and hallucinogen Used by therapists until 1980s, became a controlled substance, showed that people were more likely to open up about trauma, allows people to explore what they needed to Distinct neurological damage to neurons that release serotonin.

Question 186

What is cannabis

Answer 186

the hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish, and THC are derived Unintended effects may include anxiety; sluggish mental functioning; impaired reaction time, thinking, and memory; and possibly psychosis No physical dependance Moderate psychological dependance Long terms effects - lung cancer, accidents When is it used or prescribed Pain management Pain Migraines Is it safe to use Only use when your brain is fully developed Can have effects on your short term memory Link between cannabis and psychosis

Question 187

what is alcohol

Answer 187

encompasses a variety of beverages containing ethyl alcohol Common side effects include impairments in mental and motor functioning, mood swings, and quarrelsomeness Binge drinking may impair neural functioning in the adolescent brain Reduce inhibitions, relaxation, euphoria, depends on person Impairs coordination Gradual tolerance to alcohol Strong physical dependance Moderate psychological dependance Long term health effects - liver disease, malnutrition, brain damage, fetal alcohol syndrome (effects how they look and cognition), stroke. When do we prescribe alcohol No reason for prescription, no long term positive effects Treatment of withdrawal.

Question 188

What is MDMA

Answer 188

a compound drug related to both amphetamines and hallucinogens, especially mescaline. It is sometimes referred to as a psychedelic amphetamine. Produces a short-lived high that typically lasts a few hours or more. Users report that physical sensations are heightened, they feel warm, friendly, euphoric, sensual, insightful, and empathetic, but alert and energetic. Side effects include increased blood pressure, muscle tension, hyperthermia, dehydration, blurred vision, insomnia, and transient anxiety.

Question 189

What are the effects of drugs

Answer 189

Drug effects can vary from person to person and even for the same person in different situations. The frequency of use and quantity consumed often play a role. The impact of any drug depends in part on the user’s age, mood, motivation, personality, previous experience with the drug, body weight, and physiology. The dose and the potency of a drug, the method of administration, and the setting in which a drug is taken also influence its effects. Tolerance - refers to a progressive decrease in a person’s responsiveness to a drug

Question 190

What are mechanisms of drug action

Answer 190

Psychoactive drugs work primarily by altering neurotransmitter activity in the brain. The actions of amphetamines and cocaine illustrate how drugs have selective, multiple effects on neurotransmitter activity. Amphetamines mainly increase the release of DA and NE by presynaptic neurons. They also interfere with the reuptake of DA and NE from synaptic clefts. Certain drugs bind to specific subtypes of endorphin receptors, and their actions at these receptor sites indirectly elevate activity in the dopamine pathways that modulate reward. Scientists discovered two types of receptors in the brain for THC, the active ingredient in marijuana, which are called cannabinoid receptors Theorists believe that virtually all abused drugs eventually increase activity in a particular neural pathway, called the mesolimbic dopamine pathway. (AKA the “reward pathway”) runs from an area in the midbrain through the nucleus accumbens and on to the prefrontal cortex. Large and rapid increases in the release of dopamine along this pathway are thought to be the neural basis of the reinforcing effects of most abused drugs

Question 191

Explain drug dependances

Answer 191

Physical Dependence - exists when a person must continue to take a drug to avoid withdrawal illness. The symptoms of withdrawal illness depend on the specific drug. Withdrawal from heroin, barbiturates, and alcohol can produce fever, chills, tremors, convulsions, vomiting, cramps, diarrhoea, and severe aches and pains. Withdrawal from stimulants can lead to a more subtle syndrome, marked by fatigue, apathy, irritability, depression, and feelings of disorientation. Psychological Dependence - exists when a person must continue to take a drug to satisfy intense metal and emotional craving for the drug. Ex. cocaine can produce an overwhelming psychological need for continued use.

Question 192

How do drugs impact our health

Answer 192

recreational drug use can negatively affect users by triggering an overdose and by producing various types of both direct and indirect effects Direct effects of physiological damage from snorting cocaine would include damaging nasal membranes or altering cardiovascular functioning, which could result in a heart attack or stroke Chronic, heavy marijuana use leads to measurable impairments in attention, learning, and memory that show up when users are not high. Indirect effects are health-impairing behaviours, such as the consumption of alcohol affecting students’ intentions to engage in risky sexual behaviour, including unprotected sex.

Question 193

What are the health risks for psycoactive drugs

Answer 193

Opioids - infectious diseases, accidents, immune suppression, overdose Sedatives - accidents Stimulants - sleep problems, malnutrition, nasal damage, hypertension, respiratory disease, stroke, liver disease, heart attack, overdose Hallucinogens - accidents & acute pain Cannabis - accidents, lung cancer, respiratory diseases pulmonary disease, increased vulnerability to psychosis, and cognitive deficits Alcohol - accidents, liver disease, malnutrition, brain damage, neurological disorders, heart disease, stroke, hypertension, ulcers, cancer, birth defects, overdose

Question 194

Explain Cognition

Answer 194

Def - refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge. Cognition is studied through introspection, linguistics, cognitive revolution, and behaviour.

Question 195

Explain language and its critical properties

Answer 195

consists of symbols that convey meaning, plus rules for combining those symbols, that can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages. Language has critical properties, it is: Symbolic: people use spoken sounds and written words to represent objects, actions, events and ideas. Semantic: meaningful. Generative; a limited number of symbols can be combined in an infinite variety of ways to generate an endless array of novel messages. Structured; rules govern the arrangement of words into phrases and sentences; some acceptable, some not

Question 196

Explain the structure of language

Answer 196

Human languages have a hierarchical structure: phoneme > morpheme > word > phrase > sentence Phonemes: the smallest speech units in a language that can be distinguished perceptually. The English language is composed of about 40 phonemes. Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning in a language. Many words (Ex. fire, guard, and friend) consist of a single morpheme. Many others represent combinations of morphemes. (ex. unfriendly consists of three morphemes: the root word friend, the prefix un, and the suffix ly) Approx. 50,000 English morphemes. Semantics: the area of language concerned with understanding the meaning of words and word combinations. Infinite amount of objects and actions that words refer to. A word’s meaning may consist of both its denotation (dictionary definition) and its connotation (emotional overtones and secondary implications). Syntax: a system of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentences. A simple rule of syntax is that a sentence must have both a subject and a verb. Ex. “The sound (subject) annoyed (verb) me” is a sentence.

Question 197

explain language accquistions

Answer 197

Three-month old infants can distinguish phonemes from all of the world’s languages, including phonemes that they do not hear in their environment. (disappears between 4-12 months) A critical period: refers to a limited time span in the development of an organism when it is optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the organism is especially responsive to certain experiences.

Question 198

What is the first milestone in language accquistion

Answer 198

Producing words First 6 months, babies mostly cry, coo and laugh as communication. Until 18 months, infants start babbling: a wide variety of sounds that correspond to phonemes and repetitive consonants–vowel combinations. Gets increasingly more complex. Continues after the child has uttered first words. Monumental milestone in language acquisition.

Question 199

What is the second milestone in langauge accquistion

Answer 199

Using Words: At 10-13 months, children utter sounds that correspond to words. The initial words resemble the syllables that infants most often babble spontaneously. Ex. Words such as dada, mama, and papa. After the first words, vocabulary grows slowly for the next few months. can say between 3 and 50 words by 18 months. Receptive vocabulary is larger than their productive vocabulary, and can comprehend more words spoken by others than they can produce themselves. At 18-24 months a vocabulary spurt begins, growing at a rapid pace. Fast mapping: the process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure. An overextension: occurs when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to. Ex. Using the word ball for anything round–oranges, apples, the moon. Underextension: occurs when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to. Ex. Using the word doll to refer to only one favourite doll.

Question 200

What is the third milestone in language accquistion

Answer 200

Combining: Children typically begin to combine words into sentences near the end of their second year. Telegraphic speech: consists mainly of content words; articles, prepositions, and other less critical words are omitted. Ex. Child saying “Give doll” rather than “Please give me the doll.” Overregularizations: occur when grammatical rules are incorrectly generalised to irregular cases where they do not apply. Ex. Saying “The girl goed home” or “I hitted the ball.” Occur in all languages.

Question 201

what is the forth milestone in language accquistion

Answer 201

Refining Language Skills: Largest strides in language development occur in the first 4-5 years. School-age children begin to appreciate ambiguities in language. For instance, recognizing two possible meanings in sentences. This indicates that they’re developing metalinguistic awareness: the ability to reflect on the use of language Begin to play with language, such as make jokes and use metaphors. Between 6-8 years, children begin to appreciate irony and sarcasm.

Question 202

Explain bilingualism, the affects and advantages

Answer 202

the acquisition of two languages that use different speech sounds, vocabulary, and grammatical rules. Effects: children who learn two languages simultaneously achieve basic language acquisition milestones at the same ages as monolingual children Total vocabulary is similar or slightly superior to that of children learning a single language. there is no way to turn off L1 completely when using L2, or vice versa. This creates some cross-language interference that slows language processing. Advantages: Cognitive effects of bilingualism extend to social skills development, with bilinguals showing enhanced social skills. “crib bilinguals” as young as seven months old show enhanced ability to control and switch attention if they are raised in a bilingual home environment. bilingualism may help attenuate age-related losses in certain aspects of cognition (ex. Bilingual patients experienced the onset of dementia four years later, on average, than comparable monolingual patients)

Question 203

How do animals comminicate

Answer 203

The ability to use language–in a very basic, primitive way–may not be entirely unique to humans. In 1967 they attempted to teach a chimp ASL. In four years, Washoe acquired a sign vocabulary of roughly 160 words. She learned to combine these words into simple sentences, such as “Washoe sorry,” “Gimme flower,” and “More fruit.” However, these chimps showed little evidence of mastering rules of language. Instead they were products of operant conditioning and imitations. A chimp named Kanzi has acquired hundreds of words and has used them in thousands of combinations. He seems to follow the rules of language. He then seemed to understand the normal utterances that they exchanged with each other.

Question 204

What is a evolutionary perspective on language accquistition

Answer 204

Language evolved as a device to build and maintain social coalitions in increasingly larger groups. More effective communication among our ancient ancestors could have aided hunting, gathering, fighting, mating, and the avoidance of poisons, predators, and other dangers.

Question 205

What are behaviourlist theories of language

Answer 205

B.F. skinner believed that environmental factors govern language development. Argued that children learn language the same way they learn everything else: through imitation, reinforcement, and other established principles of conditioning. By controlling reinforcement, parents encourage their children to learn the correct meaning and pronunciation of words. Children learn to construct sentences by imitating the sentences of adults and older children.

Question 206

What are navist theories of language

Answer 206

Created by Noam Chomsky. Children can’t learn language by imitation because there are infinite numbers of sentences in a language. Children often use incorrect verbs such as “thinked” “eated” but they couldn't have imitated this from an adult. Therefore, children learn the rules of language, not specific verbal responses. Another theory is that humans have an inborn or “native” propensity to develop language. Native = nature (nature vs. nurture). Nativist theory proposes that humans are equipped with a language acquisition device (LAD): an innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language. Ex. birds learn to fly because they’re biologically equipped for it.

Question 207

what are interactionist theories of language

Answer 207

assert that biology and experience both make important contributions to the development of language. Interactionists believe that the human organism is biologically equipped for learning language, which involves the acquisition of rules. They also believe that social exchanges with parents and others play a critical role in moulding language skills. The brain is hardwired to readily recognize the sound patterns that make up human languages

Question 208

What is linguistic relativity

Answer 208

the hypothesis that one’s language determines the nature of one’s thought.

Question 209

Explain culture and language

Answer 209

Different languages lead people to view the world differently. Ex. The English language has one word for snow, whereas the Inuit language has many words to distinguish falling snow. It appears that aspects of environments, such as climate, shape people’s communicative needs, which influence the category systems used in their languages.

Question 210

Explain thought and language

Answer 210

Cross cultural comparisons of how people perceive colours because interesting variations exist among cultures in how colours are categorised with names. Ex. Some languages have a single colour name that includes both blue and green. People who speak that language think about colours differently than people in other cultures do. They have more trouble making quick discriminations between blue and green colours than English-speaking participants. Whorf’s hypothesis undermines the idea that there is a universal foundation for human cognition.

Question 211

What is problem solving

Answer 211

refers to active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable. Jim Greeno - three basic class of problems: Problems of inducing structure require people to discover the relationships among numbers, words, symbols, or ideas. Problems of arrangement require people to arrange the parts of a problem in a way that of insight. Problems of transformation require people to carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal. Can be challenging.

Question 212

What is insight

Answer 212

the sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based primarily on trial and error Occurs when people suddenly discover the correct solution to a problem after struggling with it for a while

Question 213

What are some barriers to problem solving

Answer 213

On the basis of their studies of problem solving, psychologists have identified a number of barriers that frequently impede participants’ efforts to arrive at solutions Common obstacles to effective problem solving include a focus on irrelevant info functional fixedness, mental set, and the imposition of unnecessary constraints

Question 214

What is functional fixedness

Answer 214

the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use. Ex. Thinking of a screwdriver only to turn screws and pry things open, not as a weight.

Question 215

what is a mental set

Answer 215

exists when people persist in using problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past

Question 216

explain trial and error

Answer 216

involves trying possible solutions and discarding those that are in error until one works Effective when there are few possible solutions to try.

Question 217

What is a heuristic

Answer 217

a guiding principle or “rule of thumb” used in solving problems or making decisions. Ex. Forming subgoals, searching for analogies, changing the representation of the problem.

Question 218

What is the incubation effect

Answer 218

occurs when new solutions surface for a previously unsolved problem after a period of not consciously thinking about the problem How do Culture and Cognitive Style influence problem solving behaviours? Researchers have found cultural differences in the cognitive style people exhibit in solving problems. Nisbett and his colleagues argue that people from eastern asian cultures display a; holistic cognitive style that focuses on context and relationships among elements, whereas people from western cultures exhibit an; analytic cognitive style that focuses on objects and their properties rather than context

Question 219

What is decision making

Answer 219

involves evaluating alternatives and making among them

Question 220

What is risky decision making

Answer 220

involves making choices under conditions of uncertainty.

Question 221

What is the availability heuristic

Answer 221

: involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind. Ex. Estimating the divorce rate by recalling the # of divorces among your friends’ parents.

Question 222

What is the representativeness heuristic

Answer 222

involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event. Ex. slipping a coin 6 times, one would assume the outcome of a mix of heads and tails is more likely than an outcome of just tails. However the possibility of each is exactly the same.

Question 223

What is the conjunction fallacy

Answer 223

occurs when people estimate the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone. Has been observed in a number of studies & has generally been attributed to the powerful influence of the representativeness heuristic & is very common error in thinking about probabilities

Question 224

What is the sunk cost fallacy

Answer 224

individuals continue a behaviour because they have already invested time, money, and energy in the action or decision, not because the continuation of the behaviour itself is rational. Ex. a tennis player paid a lot to be in a club, got an injury playing tennis, but continued to play because the membership was expensive.

Question 225

What are behavioural economics

Answer 225

is a field of study that examines the effects of humans’ actual (not idealised) decision making processes on economic decisions.

Question 226

what is the theory of bounded rationality

Answer 226

asserts that people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focus on only a few facets of available options and often result in “irrational” decisions that are less than optimal.

Question 227

What is framing

Answer 227

how decision issues are posed or how choices are structured.

Question 228

what are fast and frugal heuristics

Answer 228

According to Gigerenzer, organisms have to make fast decisions under demanding circumstances, with limited information. organisms do not have the time, resources, or cognitive capacities to gather all the relevant information, consider all the possible options, calculate all the probabilities and risks, and make a statistically optimal decision. Recognition heuristic: If one of two alternatives is recognized and the other is not, assume that the recognized alternative has the higher value

Question 229

explain fast thinking

Answer 229

automatic mode of thinking in which we expend very little effort and over which we have no control.