Final Exam Flashcards
(388 cards)
1
Q
How does wind pollination occur? What structures must the flowers have?
A
Wind picks up the pollen from flowers and disperses them to relative species. The flowers don’t have to have a specific structure as wind isn’t basis.
2
Q
How does animal pollination occur? What must flowers have?
A
Occur when an animal, such as a hummingbird, bee, or butterfly, take the nectar from plants and fly away dispersing it to other plants. The flowers must have a specific structure that matches up to the structure on the animal so that it can pick up nectar (co-evolution).
3
Q
What is CCD?
A
Colony collapse disorder which is a phenomenon in which worker bees from a beehive or colony abruptly disappear due to climate change, pollution, etc.
4
Q
Why are we concerned with CCD?
A
Bees are important pollinators for many agricultural crops worldwide.
5
Q
When does fruit and seed development occur?
A
After the zygote and endosperm are formed.
6
Q
What makes up the pericarp?
A
Exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp.
7
Q
What is a pericarp?
A
Part of a fruit formed from the wall of a ripened ovary.
8
Q
Exocarp
A
The outermost layer of the pericarp that forms the skin.
ex. in a orange, is the orange flesh on the outside.
9
Q
Mesocarp
A
The thick, fleshy middle layer of the pericarp.
ex. white layer that surrounds the inside of an orange.
10
Q
Endocarp
A
Innermost layer of the fruit which surrounds the seed or carpel (female reproductive system).
ex. in an orange, it’s the lining of each fluid filled compartment.
11
Q
What is the radicle?
A
The embryonic root that forms in a dicot seed.
12
Q
What is the epicotyl?
A
The embryonic shoot that forms in a dicot seed.
13
Q
What is the hypocotyl?
A
Exists between the embryonic root and shoot and bears the seedling leaves (cotyledons).
14
Q
Where do all nutrients exist in a dicot seed?
A
The cotyledon.
15
Q
What happens to flowers in oranges that lose their petals?
A
The ovary begins to form fruit.
16
Q
What is the difference of an exocarp of an apple?
A
Doesn’t exist on the outside of the fruit (skin), rather on the inside forming the darker, harder part in the middle of the apple.
17
Q
What are different types of fruits?
A
Simple fleshy, aggregate, multiple, simple dry dehiscent, and simple dry indehiscent.
18
Q
What is a simple fleshy fruit?
A
Those that have one flower that arose from 1 carpel or fused carpel (arose from a single ovary).
19
Q
What are the types of simple fleshy fruit?
A
Berry, drupe, hesperidium, pome, and pepo.
20
Q
What is a berry fruit? Give an example.
A
No hard center of the fruit and contain more than one seed.
ex. tomato and grapes.
21
Q
What is a drupe fruit? Give an example.
A
Have a hard, stony layer covering the only seed.
ex. cherry and peach
22
Q
What is a pome fruit? Give an example.
A
Those that have a semi-cartilaginous part surrounding the seed and a surrounding fleshy part as an accessory layer.
ex. pears and apples.
23
Q
What is a pepo fruit? Give an example.
A
Develops a thick rind.
ex. watermelon and squash.
24
Q
What is a hesperidium fruit? Give an example.
A
A fruit whose fleshy parts are divided into segments with the whole being surrounded by a separable skin.
ex. those in the citrus family like oranges and lemons.
25
Parthenocarpy
Virgin fruit where there are no seeds, thus no sexual reproduction.
26
What is the purpose of parthenocarpy?
To encourage pollinators to keep coming to the plant, as the fruit is still being produced, just without seeds
27
What is an aggregate fruit?
A fruit where a single flower develops from multiple ovaries (separate carpels)
ex. strawberries or blackberries.
28
What is an accessory fruit?
Some fruit in which part of the flesh isn't derived from the ovaries, rather a tissue near the carpel.
ex. strawberries or an apple
29
What seeds exists on strawberries?
Many achene seeds on the surface.
30
What is a multiple flower?
A type of fruit that develops from the ovaries of many flowers growing in a cluster (inflorescence) or that are fused together into a larger fruit (fusion of ovaries).
ex. pineapple
31
What is simple dry dehiscent fruit? Examples.
A fruit where the fruit dries, opening up and releasing the seed.
ex. follicle, legume, and capsule
32
What is a legume simple dry dehiscent?
Splits into two lines of dehiscent when maturing and drying.
33
What is a capsule?
Composed of more than one carpel that splits lengthwise in several sections, but a lot of effort is needed to break the hard cover.
ex. poppy plants
34
What is a follicle?
Formed from one carpel, but only opens up on one side.
ex. milkweed
35
What is simple dry indehiscent?
The fruit wall and seed coat are fused together, thus both released together during dispersal.
36
What is an achene?
Has a hard pericarp where a single seed sticks to the wall of the ovary.
ex. sunflower seeds
37
What is a grain?
A fruit containing a fused seed coat and fruit wall.
ex. corn
38
What is a samara?
A winged achene where the seed exists at the bottom near the attachment of the leaf to a tree.
ex. maple tree
39
What is a nut?
The same structure of an achene where the seed is stick to the wall of the ovary, but the ovary wall is tough and woody.
ex. walnuts
40
What are heirloom tomatoes?
Not made by huge manufacturers where there are made in low numbers of specific types.
41
What part of the tomato can't be eaten?
The stem due to containing alkaloids which are toxic.
42
Why is an apple a 5 carpel fruit?
Due to a star endocarp.
43
What is grafting?
Joins parts from two or more plants so that they appear to grow as a single plant.
44
Why does grafting occur?
Reduce time as a seed doesn't need to mature into a full tree instead root and shoot system is almost fully developed.
45
Explain the process of grafting.
1. A stock, which is a ripe root already developed in the ground has it's shoot cut off
2. The scion, which is a branch from another tree (the one that is of interest) is attached to the stock
3. Connected via tape and hormones so xylem and phloem of the vascular cambium (secondary ones) can match up nicely and develop (give girth and cork/bark)
46
Why are grapefruits deadly?
Interactions with medications as they increase the amount of drug that is absorbed in the body and stays in the blood longer.
47
How does the seed remain in the soil before proper conditions arise?
Dormant
48
What does the seed need to start developing?
Optimal conditions including water, nutrients, temperature, sunlight, etc.
49
What happens to a seed when it absorbs water?
The water blooms inside the seed, breaking the seed coat to allow the inner parts to grow and germinate.
50
Germination
The sprouting of a seed after a period of dormancy.
51
Explain the process of germination in a dicot seed.
1. Radicle grows into a primary root
2. The epicotyl begins to sprout from the seed coat becoming a shoot later one while the hypocotyl extends from it
3. The hypocotyl extends allowing leaves to form above ground, when they sprout from the epicotyl (now forming cotyledons)
4. More leaves develop due to photosynthesis and a secondary root develops
52
How does the seed receive nutrients before the cotyledons arise?
The endosperm
53
Explain the process of germination in a monocot seed.
1. The radicle develops into a primary root
2. The epicotyl is hidden underneath a sheath like structure known as a coleoptile
3. The coleoptile forms the first leaf itself and others develop later on
54
Coleoptile
A sheath like structure in a monocot seed that facilities the emergence of the shoot through the soil (covers the epicotyl).
55
Why are tomatoes considered a fruit and a vegetable?
Botanically it is a fruit, but due to it not being eaten for dessert, it is a vegetable too.
56
What is asexual reproduction?
Reproduction by mitosis, resulting in organisms with the same genetic makeup (genotype).
57
What are the offspring of asexual reproduction considered?
Clones
58
What methods are used to asexually produce plants?
Growth of adventitious roots or shoots (naturally or from cuttings), grafting, and micropropagation.
59
Why would we want clones of fruits?
There isn't variation, thus we know what to deal with in terms of fertilizers, rate of growth, water conditions, etc.
60
What are adventitious plant structures?
Structures that arise from areas that are not apical meristems and more often in unusual places.
61
How is a ginger an adventitious plant?
Contains an adventitious root where it's grown from an underground horizontal modified stem known as a rhizome.
62
What is an adventitious shoot?
Buds growing off of a leaf forming multiple leaf structures.
63
What do adventitious roots in a strawberry develop from?
An above ground horizontal stem known as a stolon + runner as it produces multiple shoots are different locations.
64
What is cutting?
Taking a piece of vegetative tissue that when placed under the proper environmental conditions, it regenerates the missing parts forming a plant.
ex. stem, leaf, and root
65
Where do adventitious roots grow from?
Arise from vascular tissue area, specifically phloem.
66
What encourages growth for adventitious roots?
Adding synthetic auxins, which is a hormone that allows for bigger plants to develop.
67
Why don't we want to pick ripe tomatoes?
Because when transported they will be bruised easily.
68
What is the solution to picking and transporting tomatoes to stores?
Picked way before ripened, so harder and thus won't bruise during transport, then placed in ethylene (in an isolated room) to naturally encourage ripening before placed on shelves.
69
How did golden delicious apples arise and stay in the environment?
Arose from a mutation of the red delicious apple, then grafted from the original tree's shoot to keep it alive.
70
Scion
Upper portion of the plant, which is usually the stem with buds.
71
Stock
The lower portion of the plant, which is the rootstock.
72
Why use grafting?
Repair damaged shoot or root system; reduces growing times (less than starting with a seed or seedling); produce scion-stock pairing that provides new tree with benefits from each of the two plant components (resistant to disease); and grow multiple fruits on one plant.
73
What are the problems with grafting?
Graft incompatibility (vascular tissues don't line up) or the graft may result in a weak point where joined, thus having the produce a tree with less apples (heaviness could break the shoot).
74
What are advantages of asexual reproduction?
Original plant's desirable characteristics can be maintained; uniformity among individuals; and opportunity for greater manipulation (micropropagation) of plant characteristics.
75
What are disadvantages of asexual reproduction?
Systemic infections (virus) in parent plant will be passed onto daughter plants; isolation and sanitary conditions required to maintain the pathogen-free plant material; and loss of diversity which could lead to inbreeding depression (one disease wipes out all).
76
What must happen to provide a pathogen-free plant material?
Heat treatment
77
Cross-pollination
Removing the stamens from one species and transferring that pollen to the carpel of another flower of the same species.
78
True breeding plant
Parents produce offspring that contain the same phenotypes as themselves, thus they are homozygous.
79
Monohybrid cross
Crossing two plants with only two alleles to produce a 3:1 ratio (dominant to recessive).
80
Principle of segregation
Pairs of genes are separated into sex cells, so that each gamete contains an allele of the original gene (each allele moving to opposite sides of the cell during anaphase).
81
Dihybrid cross
Crossing two plants with two traits (thus four alleles) to produce a 9:3:3:1 ratio.
82
Principle of independent assortment
Each pair of alleles separate independently from the other pairs (how the connect during metaphase).
83
Incomplete dominance
When the offspring is a mixture of the parents, thus it is unsure which parent is the dominant individual.
ex. red and white flowers mixed together give a pink flower
84
Complete dominance
Both parents are seen in the offspring, thus both are dominant (patches of colours).
ex. red and white flowers mixed together give an offspring that has has white and red patches.
85
Polygenic inheritance
Where multiple genes affect a single trait.
86
Epistasis
One gene is affected by one or more genes through modifications of silencing or masking, thus resulting in a different phenotype.
87
What are linked genes?
Genes that are found close together on the same chromosome, thus being inherited together to give a 3:1 ratio.
88
What determines if two genes will be linked or not?
How far apart they exist on a chromosome?
89
When does crossing over occur? How?
In prophase I due to synapsis where homologous chromosomes are joined together and share information through their chiasmata.
90
What happens if crossing over occurs?
2 recombinant chromosomes giving four varying possible sex cells.
91
What happens if crossing over doesn't occur?
No recombinant chromosomes giving 2 possible sex cells.
92
Explain transcription.
RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template strand in a 3' to 5' direction to synthesize a mRNA transcript in the 5' to 3' direction.
93
Where does transcription occur?
The nucleus for eukaryotes and the cytoplasm for prokaryotes.
94
Explain translation.
A ribosome with two subunits attach to the mRNA transcript in the cytoplasm where it reads it in the 5' to 3' direction. tRNAs with anticodons that are complementary to the codons in the transcript (written in the opposite direction), attach to sites in the ribosome (P, A, and E) where the amino acids attached at the 3' end of the tRNA form a polypeptide chain that becomes a protein.
95
Primary structure of proteins
Linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
96
Secondary structure of proteins
H bonds form between interaction within the polypeptide backbone forming alpha helices and beta pleated sheets.
97
Tertiary structure of proteins
The R groups of amino acids interact to fold, producing a 3D shape.
98
Quaternary structure of proteins
Multiple subunits interact to form a 3D shape
99
What is a perennial crop?
Crops that don't need to be replanted each year, thus after harvest, they automatically grow back.
100
What are the advantages of a perennial crop?
Less damage done to the soil, since don't have to do any tillage as the seeds reproduce each time without being planted.
101
What are the disadvantages of a perennial crop?
Since the soil is barely touched, this increases the risk of weeds and pest, thus more pesticides are used annually.
102
What is a polyculture of perennial crops?
Multiple crops of different species that are grown together due to the interactions with one another either during the breeding season or off season.
ex. squash, beans, and corn
103
What are seed banks?
A place where seeds are stored to preserve genetic diversity for the future
104
What is the importance of seed banks?
If the plants die out due to inbreeding depression, the preserved seeds allow the dead plants to become seedlings again and grow into monocultures, thus protecting germ plasm.
105
Germ plasm
The genetic material of germ cells
106
What is a concern for crop production if using clones?
Variation in crop growth and development (using clones, so want little to none); maintenance of future crop seed supply; and soil health and pesticide virulence (all the same so one pest would wipe out the whole crop).
107
What does the Germplasm Treaty deal with (3 points)?
1. Cataloguing plant genetic resources and assessing threats.
2. Encouraging seed (a vegetative material) for storage in seed banks; important as if not stored properly wipes out the possibility of offspring (many in tropical areas that experience destruction).
3. Setting conditions for access to protected plant germplasm by sharing profits with the 1st world country that provides resources to keep the species growing and the 3rd world country that provides the workers and location of the seed banks.
108
How are heirloom species conserved?
Incentives are given to smaller farmer to grow these crops.
109
What is caffeine?
An alkaloid, which is a type of a secondary metabolite that is synthesized by the plant.
110
What are primary metabolites? Give examples.
Synthesized by the plant and critical for survival.
ex. carbohydrates (glucose), lipids, and proteins
111
How do secondary and primary metabolites differ?
Both are synthesized by the plant, but the primary ones are needed for survival while secondary can aid in growth, survival, and reproduction but not necessary.
112
What is the purpose of caffeine in plants?
Give plants a bitter taste, so that herbivores refuse to eat it.
113
What are other examples of secondary metabolites beside caffeine?
Toxins that give protection from herbivores or aromas that attract pollinators.
114
What are the advantages of drinking coffee?
Stops tiredness by stimulating the CNS; has antioxidants; improves athletic performance; enhances pain-relieving effects of aspirin and acetaminophen; an appetite suppressor; and increased protection against Parkinson's, type 2 diabetes, or cancers (future research).
115
What are the disadvantgaes of drinking coffee?
Increases nervousness, irritability, and heart (stimulates CNS); cause insomnia due to stimulation; addictive; and increased birth defects/decreased fetal growth.
116
What part of a plant is a coffee bean?
Seed
117
What species do most caffeine products come from?
Coffea arabica
118
Is a coffee tree dicot or monocot? Why?
Dicot due to net veined leaves.
119
What are the fruit in coffee trees known as?
Cherry
120
How do mature fruit in a coffee tree look?
Bright red clusters like appear similar to grapes.
121
What is the makeup of a fruit in a coffee tree?
Pulpy covering with 2 seeds on the inside.
122
Where did coffee originate from?
Ethiopia
123
Where do we get most of our coffee now?
Brazil
124
What is the climate coffee grows in? Why?
Tropical climates as they are intolerant to frost.
125
Why doesn't Ceylon (Sri Lanka) grow coffee trees anymore? What do they grow instead?
Their coffee trees experienced a fungal infection. Now they grow plants that are used in teas.
126
Explain the processing of coffee beans.
1. Seedlings are planted in tropical climates
2. It takes 3-5 years for the seedlings to mature (green to red)
3. Fruits are picked by hand when they are ripe (red)
4. Placed in baskets where they are dried (constant movement to avoid build up of microorganisms)
5. Depulped once dry enough, where it loses its red coverings and the seeds are exposed
6. Seeds have a dark parchment as a seed coat
7. Loses the parchment so now green beans (light brown seeds)
8. Roasted to produce oils that caramelize the seeds to give them a shiny, dark brown colour
127
How are beans decaffeinated?
Beans have caffeine removed either through wet or dry methods (still a small % of caffeine remains).
128
How are beans roasted?
For certain temperatures for a certain amount of time until they reach an optimal temperature for the particular type of bean they want to produce.
129
What is the difference between dark and light roast?
Dark roast has a more bitter taste due to being roasted at longer times and higher temperatures. Light roast has a sugary taste and contain more caffeine due to being roasted at lower temperatures.
130
Why are transported beans stored as green beans when leaving their tropical climates?
Because once roasted, they only last a certain period of time.
131
Fair trade
Employees being paid fairly
132
Organically grown
Good for the environment
133
Shade grown
Better for the environment, but more expensive.
134
What is an infusion?
The liquid produced from steeping (soaking) plant organ in boiling water.
135
What are most teas made from?
Leaves
136
What are most herbal teas made from?
Other parts of the plants that aren't the leaves.
137
What species do non-herbal tea plants come from?
Camellia sinensis plant (all the same species)
138
What kind of plant is the camellia sinensis plant? Why?
Dicot due to net veined leaves.
139
How are tea leaves picked?
Manually
140
What leaves do we want for our tea?
Young leaves as they provide better flavour.
141
How to get different kinds of teas from the camellia sinensis plant?
The leaves are processed and fermented differently depending on what tea is the ouctome.
142
What non-herbal tea requires the most processing?
Black tea.
143
What leaves are white tea made from?
The young leaves from the trees; however, these ones are dried out to give them a white colour rather than green.
144
What are true teas?
Non-herbal teas
145
What are the differences between true teas?
Difference in flavour
146
How does the difference in flavour arise?
Due to flavonoids (antioxidants) and tannins (2 types of phenolics) and processing
147
How much caffeine do non herbal teas contain?
About 4%
148
What are the the four steps in processing non-herbal teas?
Withering, rolling, oxidation, and drying or firing.
149
Explain withering.
Newly picked leaves are dried with heated air so that the leaves become flexible.
150
Explain rolling.
Leaves are twisted and rolled, thus breaking cells and releasing oils. This is done by a hand or machine.
151
What do the oils release in rolling?
A distinctive aroma.
152
Explain oxidation/fermentation.
Chemical process where the oxygen is absorbed from the leaf so that it changes to a bright copper colour.
153
What is a differentiating process in tea processing?
Oxidation, which varies between green, oolong, and black tea.
154
How does oxidation differ between white/green, oolong, and black tea?
White/green = no fermentation
Oolong = semi-fermentation
Black = full fermentation
155
Explain drying or firing.
Leaves are dried evenly without burning, then firing stops the oxidation process.
156
What do drying do for white tea?
Takes out the green colour of leaves, so that the leaves turn white.
157
How do different types of black teas differ?
Based on processing done (dried over burning pine) and the location of the plant influences the taste based on climate, weather, and altitude.
158
How do blends of black tea differ?
Based on blends of different black teas and additions of oils and spices to give different tastes.
159
Why does green tea have a low amount of caffeine?
Due to less processing,
160
What process allows the caffeine in black tea to stand out?
4% brought by oxidation
161
Where does chocolate come from?
The seeds of the Theobroma cacao tree.
162
Where does chocolate grow?
In tropical regions as they are intolerant to frost.
163
How are the trees of chocolate seeds?
Small, understory tree (stunted growth due to lack of light).
164
How many seeds per pod of a chocolate tree?
20-40 seeds/pod.
165
What exists within a pod?
A chocolate bean within white sticky pulp.
166
Why is there a low pollination rate for cacao flowers?
Few pollinators in plantation
167
How are seeds of chocolate pods released? Why?
By animals, like squirrels, rodents, and bats, that use their sharp teeth to open up the thick rinds of the pods to disperse seeds.
168
How are seed dispersers attracted to pods?
The sticky white pulp attracts them.
169
Why are there only a certain amount of seeds within a pod?
Due to the great amount of energy needed to produce them.
170
How are chocolate beans produced?
1. Picked from the pod and then fermented for a week
2. Dried to allow the pulp to turn brown and inedible, so that the covering can be removed
3. Roasted to leave dark beans, also known as nibs.
171
What do chocolate beans contain?
Theobromine (stimulant) and caffeine.
172
How to make chocolate?
Chocolate liquor from nibs + sugar to sweeten + cocoa butter from the oil of the beans to silken + vanilla and milk.
173
Explain the process of making chocolate from the beans.
Depending on what form is being made different components are removed or added in excessive amounts; all are mixed together known as conching; and then placed in molds.
174
How is cocoa powder made?
By removing the cocoa butter (removes the silky texture).
175
How is white chocolate made?
Uses the cocoa butter component of the beans and mixes it with sugar (NO CHOCOLATE LIQUOR).
176
What does the increase in the percentage of chocolate mean?
More chocolate liquor.
177
Why didn't the spanish like chocolate at first? What was the solution?
Too oily so they added liquor to remove this texture.
178
Why is wine typically less than 14% alcohol?
Yeats dies when alcohol level reaches 14%.
179
What is needed for the fermentation process?
1. Sugar or starch
2. Yeast
180
What bacteria proudces yeast?
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
181
What are the byproducts of fermentation?
Ethanol and carbon dioxide + 2 NAD+.
182
Why is it important that NAD+ is made in fermentation of alcohols?
Makes sure that glycolysis can continue.
183
Before fermentation can occur, what must happen?
Glycolysis so that pyruvate can be made to be altered + allowing 2 ATP/NADH to be made.
184
What is the formula of fermentation?
C6H12O6 --> ethanol + CO2
185
Where do most wine grapes come from (species)?
Vitis vinifera
186
How are grapes organized?
In clusters on palmately lobed simple leaves, that are attached to vines.
187
How to grape veins avoid root aphids?
Uses grafting where the root system is resistant to aphids that may eat away the roots and attaches it to a shoot of a grape vine to produce the fruit.
188
How can red grapes make white wine?
If the skins are removed before fermentation.
189
How is red wine made?
If the skins are removed after fermentation.
190
How is white wine made?
Using white grapes.
191
Explain the process of making wine.
1. Stemmer-crusher = grapes are placed in a machine to leave bits and pieces where the stems and leaves can be removed; the must, which is the juice released, is used further
2. Fermentation = sulfur dioxide added for fertilization and the addition of yeast to produce alcohol + ethanol + CO2
3. Pressing = presses the juice so all the skins are removed
4. Racking = clarifiers are added allowing sediments (lees) to be collected and removed
5. Aging = placed in an oak barrel to allow the clear wine to age (time differs)
6. Bottled
192
How much alcohol does wine contain?
Less than 14%
193
What is fortified wine?
Wine that has distilled spirit added to it, such as brandy, to increase alcohol content (greater than 14%).
194
What grain is added to beer?
Barley
195
Why are hops or beechwood chips added to beer?
Gives an added taste and flavour
196
What is the general process of making beer?
Germination, malt, mash, wort, fermentation, aging, and filtering.
197
Explain the process of making beer.
1. Barley moistened to germinate
2. Once germinated, enzymes are produced that break down starches
3. The germinated forms are dried and crushed in a kiln to make malt
4. Cereal grains like barley and water are added to a mash tun to make mash
5. In the mash tun, enzymatic activity converts grain starch to fermentable sugars
6. In a brew kettle, hops are added and removed for flavouring; enzyme inactivation due to heating; and spoilage is inhibited to produce wort
7. Wort is cooled to a certain temperature in a cooling tower
8. In a fermentation tank, yeast is added to produce CO2 and ethanol
9. In a lager tank, beechwood chips are added for a final flavour and stored
10. Packaged in kegs, bottles, or cans
198
How is proof measured?
It is twice the amount of alcohol content.
199
Explain the distillation process.
1. Beer or wine is boiled
2. Alcohol evaporates and it's collected on the neck of the kettle
3. Cooled and condenses back to a liquid with an increased content of alcohol (no water)
5. Herbs and berries added afterwards
200
Why can alcohol be concentrated in distillation?
Due to the different boiling points between alcohol and water.
201
What equipment is used for distillation?
Copper pots
202
What determines the spirit produced?
The method and time of storage.
203
What is the purpose of herbs and spices?
Added to food to give a good flavour.
204
What are herbs and spices? Why?
Secondary metabolites as the aromas or taste can deter predators.
205
What is the differences in plant parts between herbs and spices?
Herbs = aromatic leaves or seeds
Spices = aromatic fruits, flowers, bark, or other
206
What is the difference in origin between herbs and spices?
Herbs = temperature places like Ontario
Spices = tropical
207
Where were spices orginally located?
Egypt, specifically a port in Alexandria (trade)
208
After the Dark ages, where did most people travel for spices?
Portugal
209
Why was the spice trade decentralized?
Many people took the spices in Portugal and planted them elsewhere, so almost every tropical area could grow them, thus reducing the price.
210
Give examples of Old World spices (those around for a long time).
Cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, saffron, ect.
211
What spices does nutmeg make?
1. Inner seed = nutmeg
2. Red substance that covers the seed = mace
212
Why is saffron an expensive spice?
It's retrieval is labour inducing as the stigmas must be hand picked.
213
What are some examples of New World spices (those grown in the Americas)?
Capsicum peppers, allspice, and vanilla.
214
What gives capsicum peppers their biting taste?
Capsaicinoids
215
What solved the problem of expensive vanilla?
Used synthetic pods
216
What herbs belong to the mint family?
Basil, sage, and lavender.
217
What are the four common families of herbs?
Allium, mint, mustard, and parsley.
218
What herbs belong to the parsley family?
Dill, parsley, and anise.
219
What herbs belong to the mustard family?
Mustard and horseradish.
220
What herbs belong to the allium family?
Onion, garlic, and chives.
221
What are Canada's Food Guide choices?
Plenty of veggies and fruits; eat protein foods; make water your drink of choice; and choose whole grain foods.
222
What were the improvements they made to the labelling of food?
1. Serving size stands out more and is similar on similar foods
2. Daily values updated due to more studies conducted
3. New % for daily value of total sugars
4. Updated list of minerals of public health concerns (mg)
5. Calories is bolded to stand out more
6. New % daily value footnote where the express what is little or a lot
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What are the macronutrients?
Carbs, lipids, and proteins.
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What are the micronutrients?
Vitamins and minerals.
225
Why did the Silphium plant go extinct?
Due to over harvesting of the plant.
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What was the Silphium plant used for?
Used by the greeks and romans as a contraceptive.
227
Why was Hippocrates the Father of Medicine?
He discovered that disease had natural causes and plants could be used for this treatment.
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What happened in ancient Rome in terms of medicinal plants?
Over 600 medicinal plants were documented; however, some writings were inaccurate.
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What happened in the 1500s, in terms of medicinal plants?
Plant books were created to shows correct characteristics of herbal plants with some knowledge from the ancient Rome writings.
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How was medicine split in the 1700s?
Practitioners of herbal medicine versus regular physicians.
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Where is herbal medicine still prominent?
China
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What happened in the 1800s in terms of medicinal plants?
1. Active extracts in plants were purified
ex. morphine from opium poppy
2. Identification and formulation of synthetic drugs
ex. salicylic acid --> aspirin
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How many drugs have a plant origin?
25%
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What secondary metabolites are used in medicinal plants?
Terpenes, phenolics, glycosides, and alkaloids.
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Alkaloids
Nitrogen-containing, alkaline compound
ex. morphine, quinine, cocaine, ect.
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What do the alkaloids affect?
Affect the nervous system
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Glycosides
Sugar component (glyco-) attached to active component
ex. digitoxin
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What do cardioactive glycosides affect?
Affect heart muscle contractions.
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Terpenes
Hydrocarbons
ex. taxol
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What are terpenes used for?
In chemotherapy to fight cancers.
241
Give an example of a phenolic.
THC
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What is black cohosh used for?
A Canadian herbal plant to treat menopause symptoms.
243
What is ginseng used for?
A Canadian herbal plant used as a stimulant for the immune system.
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What part of the plant is used for herbal medicine in black cohosh and ginseng?
The roots of the plants are harvested and dried.
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What secondary metabolite do black cohosh and ginseng contain?
Phenolics
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Why aren't a lot of ginseng plants grown in Ontario?
Limited in growth due to government controlled plots.
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Where is Foxglove grown?
In BC and eastern Canada.
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How do the flowers appear in a Foxglove plant? When?
Indeterminate flowers in the second year.
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What secondary metabolite does Foxglove contain?
Digitoxin which is a cardioactive glycoside.
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Where does digitoxin exist in Foxglove?
In the leaves.
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What does digitoxin do?
Slows heart rate and increases the strength of heart muscle contraction, thus improving quality of life for heart condition individuals.
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Why can digitoxin be bad?
High dose leads to arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat) and death.
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What was the bark in Black willow used for?
Used as an anti-inflammatory, antipyretic (reduce fever) and analgesic (relieve pain) agent.
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How was the bark aten in a Black willow to get its herbal benefits?
Suck on the bark.
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What compound is found in black willow?
Salicin (glycoside).
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What is salicin an active ingredient in?
Salicylic acid.
257
What was the purpose of synthetic aspirin? How?
Reduce risk of 1st heart attack or later heart attacks (angina) by reducing the formation of blood clots.
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What is the carrier of malaria?
Mosquito
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What happens if someone is bitten by an infected mosquito?
Malaria will multiple in the liver where it can then enter RBCs, rupturing them and releasing a toxin.
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How does the Cinchona tree fight against malaria?
It's bark contains quinine to reduce fever and kill the parasite.
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What is used instead of the Cinchona tree (had negative effects)?
A synthetic drug made from the development of a plant with artemisinin (a terpene); similar effects to quinine.
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Where is aloe vera found?
In tropical areas (those where you will usually get sunburns).
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What does the sap of aloe vera contain?
Aloin, a glycoside.
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What does the sap of aloe vera do?
Relieve and promote healing of burns and cuts.
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What compound does the periwinkle plant contain? Where?
Two alkaloids in its leaves.
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How does the periwinkle plant fight against cancer?
Interfere with spindle fiber formation (no mitosis).
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What compound does the pacific yew tree contain? Where?
Taxol, a terpene, found in the bark.
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How does the pacific yew tree fight against cancer?
Interferes with spindle fiber formation.
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How are the metabolites in the periwinkle plant and pacific yew tree made?
Produced synthetically.
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What are the periwinkle plant and pacific yew tree used in?
Chemotherapy treatments.
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How do compounds in psychoactive plants affect?
Affect neurotransmitters (and binding to receptors) in CNS to produce mind-altering effects.
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What do stimulants do?
Produce excitatory responses that increase heart and breathing rate.
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Examples of stimulants.
Cocaine and caffeine.
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What do depressants do?
Decrease in mental awareness and physical performance.
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Examples of depressants.
Opium, which morphine and heroin can be derived from.
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What are the main three effects of psychoactive plants?
Stimulants, depressants, and hallucinogens.
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What is the strict definition of narcotics (excludes cocaine)?
Substances that induce CNS depression, leading to numbness, lethargy, and sleep.
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What is the contemporary definition of narcotics (includes cocaine)?
Any psychoactive substance that is addictive.
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What is an addictive compound?
One that elicits one or more of: psychological dependence, physiological dependence, and/or tolerance.
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Psychological dependence
The need to re-experience the pleasure provided by the narcotic.
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Physiological dependence
Avoiding the withdrawal symptoms associated with the narcotic.
282
Tolerance
With the repeated use of a drug, a greater quantity is needed to experience the same effects.
283
What do addictive drugs affect?
The reward circuit in the brain.
284
What compound does the Coca plant (Erythroxylum coca) have? Where?
Contain the alkaloid cocaine in the leaves.
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What is the coca plant used for?
Local anesthetic (medicinal).
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Historically, how was the coca plant eaten to get its stimulant?
Chewed leaves.
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How is crack made?
Cocaine hydrochloride is diluted to produce crystalline form.
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How is cocaine powder made?
Cocaine hydrochloride is dried to form a powder.
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How is cocaine hydrochloride made?
Cocaine is isolated from the leaves, purified, and refined.
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What is the reward circuit?
A natural circuit that gives us pleasurable feelings associated with food, sex, and music.
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What is dopamine?
A neurotransmitter that releases excitement feelings.
292
Where does dopamine travel?
The axon of a ventral tegmental area (VTA) neuron to the synaptic gap to receptors in the nucleus accumbens (NA) neuron.
293
Explain the natural reward circuit (involving food, music, or sex).
The VTA axon releases dopamine into the synaptic gap to attach to the receptors of the NA neuron to provide a pleasurable response. The amount of dopamine will increase in these circumstances.
294
Explain the reward circuit involving cocaine.
Cocaine blocks the reuptake of dopamine into the VTA neuron, thus increasing the concentration in the synaptic gap so that more can attack to NA neuron receptors, producing an intense euphoric response.
295
Describe the addiction and tolerance level of cocaine.
Most addictive drug that chronic users can develop a high tolerance too.
296
What are examples of withdrawal symptoms?
Paranoia, insomnia, appetite loss, and death caused by heart attacks or cerebral hemorrhage.
297
What increases withdrawal symptoms?
Increase in addiction.
298
How is morphine and heroin produce from a poppy plant (papaver somniferum)?
Milky latex is dried, turning brown to produce opium that can be altered to make morphine or heroin.
299
What is the purpose of morphine and heroin? How?
Deaden pain by depressing area in the brain that is involved in perceiving pain.
300
Explain the opium trade and stoppage of it.
Occured in China where people became addicted to opium, so 2 wars were fought to seize the trade. China lost, but by the time the opium trade had stopped at least 25% of the population was addicted.
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Heroin
A semi-synthetic derivative of morphine.
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Differ between heroin and morphine.
Heroin is 6X more addictive than morphine and has one of the greatest withdrawal symptoms.
303
What was the purpose of heroin?
An over the counter drug used for pain relief specifically for adults and children.
304
How are the flowers arranged in cannabis sativa?
Diecious species, so the male and female flowers are one different plants.
305
How are the leaves arranged in cannabis sativa?
Palmately compound with 3-7 leaflets.
306
What do the leaves and flowers of the cannabis plants produce?
THC and cannabinoid (a phenolic group).
307
Why do farmers grow female cannabis plants?
Have a higher concentration of THC in their flowers and leaves.
308
How is cannabis consumed?
Smoked
309
What psychoactive effects does THC produce?
Alters mind with a sense of euphoria and calmness.
310
How is cannabis used in medicine?
1. Glaucoma (cause blindness) --> decrease ocular pressure
2. MS --> reduces pain from deteriorating fatty acids sheaths on nerves
3. Cancer --> kills off cancerous cells
311
What compound does tobacco contain?
Nicotine, an alkaloid.
312
Where is nicotine located in a tobacco plant?
Produced in the roots and transported to the leaves.
313
How to use nicotine in tobacco leaves?
By chewing or smoking the leaves.
314
Where did tobacco exists?
Originated in South America.
315
What species is tobacco?
A tetraploid hybrid species.
316
Why must great care be provided to tobacco plants during cultivation?
Highly susceptible to pathogens and disease.
317
Explain the process of curing tobacco leaves.
1. Fermentation and drying process to turn the leaves brown
2. Aging the leaves so they develop aromas and flavours
318
What are the health risks associated with nicotine?
Very addictive (increased number of nicotine receptors in the brain with increased addiction), thus very bad withdrawal symptoms.
319
What are the health risks associated with tobacco?
- increased chance of cancer
- lead to chronic bronchitis and emphysema
- other toxins promote atherosclerosis (cardiovascular disease)
- secondary smoke affects others
320
Where do humans store their sugars?
Glycogen
321
Where do plants store their sugars?
Starch
322
Monosaccharide
Glucose
323
Disaccharide
Sucrose and maltose.
324
Glycemic Index
Effect of particular foods on blood glucose levels.
325
Polysaccharides
Cellulose fibers, pectin, glycogen, starch, etc.
326
Primary structure
Linear arrangement of amino acids
327
Secondary structure
The peptide bonds interact with one another (backbone), to form beta pleated sheets or alpha helices.
328
Tertiary structure
The amino acids react with one another to create H bonds, dipole interactions, et.c, so that the protein becomes folded (determines function).
329
Quaternary structure
Subunits attach
330
What proteins do plants not contain ? Why?
Contractile because they don't have muscles to move.
331
Why is the difference between essential and non-essential amino acids?
Essential is the ones we need to get through our diet whereas non-essential we make in our bodies.
332
Triglyceride
A glycerol and 3 fatty acids.
333
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?
Saturated = maximum number of carbons connected by single bonds.
Unsaturated = connected by one or more double bonds that create kinks.
334
Phytosterols
A similar component of cholesterol in plants.
335
Why do we want more of our fats to be unsaturated?
More spaced out, thus reducing the amount of closely packed fats bettering our health.
336
Polyunsaturated vs monounsaturated
Poly = more than one double bond
Mono = one double bond
337
What do we need cholesterol for?
Component of cell membranes and required for synthesis of some hormones.
338
Where is cholesterol made? From what?
The liver from saturated fats.
339
What is the difference between LDL and HDL?
HDL contains more proteins whereas LDL contains more lipids, thus proving why HDL is better.
340
What are the poor effects of cholesterol?
It builds up on the lining of arteries (atherosclerosis) leading to heart attacks (blockage of blood flow).
341
What fats reduce LDL and HDLs?
Polyunsaturated fats
342
What fats increase HDL and lower LDL?
Monounsaturated fats
343
How are trans fats produced?
From the partial hydrogenation (processing) of unsaturated fats.
344
How do unsaturated fats exist at room temperature?
Liquid
345
How do saturated fats exist at room temperature?
Solid
346
What do trans fats do to LDL and HDL? Problem in humans?
Lowers HDL and increases LDL, increasing the risk for heart disease like atherosclerosis.
347
Tris form
Double bonds of fatty acids that bend in the opposite direction.
348
What do the tris form double bonds in trans fats lead to?
Increased stacking of fatty acid chains and forming solid fat.
349
Vitamins
Organic materials
ex. A, B, C, D, E, K
350
Minerals
Inorganic materials
ex. iron, potassium
351
Why are lipids long term energy sources?
More difficult to break down.
352
What are the functions of lipids?
Structure and energy
353
Fat-soluble vitamins
A, D, E, and K that can be stored in the body.
354
Water-soluble vitamins
B and C that can not be stored in the body, thus need to get constant supplements of.
355
Trace minerals
Those that are required a few mg/day.
ex. iron
356
Major minerals
Those that are required more than 100mg/day.
ex. calcium, potassium, sodium (careful with the last two as too salty = bad).
357
What plant fibers make cloth?
Cotton, flax, hemp, jute, and sisal.
358
Where is cotton grown?
Prefers warm climate with rain for their growing season.
359
What is the fruit of the cotton plant called?
Capsule or boll (a leathery, hard pericarp).
360
How do the seeds appear and exist within the boll?
Seeds have white-cellulose containing fibers that are attached to the seed coat.
361
Why is cotton strong?
Due to its natural twists of the fibers.
362
Where do surface fibers exist?
In seed coverings, leaves, or roots.
363
How are surface fibers extracted?
Ginning
364
Ginning
Tears fibers loose
365
Where do bast (soft) leaves exist?
In the cluster of phloem fibers in inner bark of a dicot stem.
366
How are soft leaves extracted?
Retting
367
Where do leaf (hard) fibers exist?
In vascular bundles/veins in leaves in monocots.
368
Retting
Microbial action breaks down other tissues, allowing bast ones to prevail.
369
What extracts leaf (hard) fibers?
Decortication
370
Decortication
Scraping away unwanted tissues to leave vascular bundles (using a wheel).
371
How are cotton hairs processed into yarn?
1. Ginning: hooks catch the fibers and pass them to the spikes that draw in lint (long fibers), leaving seeds behind
2. Sent yarn to manufacturers
3. Cleaned + combed + laid parallel + stretched and twisted (spinning wheel) to create yarn
3. Woven into cloth
372
Where are bast fibers found?
In rough material.
373
Examples of bast fibers.
Flax, hemp, and jute fibers.
374
How is flax processed?
1. Pulled out of ground by roots (to get stems)
2. Bundled and seed bolls removed
3. Retting (placed in mud so microorganisms can break down other tissues)
4. People strip away decomposed material to reveal the inner part of the stem
5. Drying and processing
6. Spinning into yarn
375
What is an example of hard/leaf fibers?
Sisal fibers
376
How much of the earth's surface is covered by forests?
Less than 30%
377
Where does heartwood exist?
The old wood, closer to the center.
378
Why is heartwood darker? Its purpose?
Due to the oils that build up in cells over time, making this wood better for support and structure (lumbar).
379
What is sapwood and its purpose?
Newer wood, closer to the bark, that is used for transport of water and nutrients.
380
What tree is used for softwood?
Conifer
381
What tree is used for hardwood?
White oak
382
How are different grains produced?
Different species and/or cuts.
383
Radial cut
Cut from the center to the outside.
384
Tangential cut
Cut right across the diameter of the wood.
385
How is plywood made?
Gluing chips at 90 degree angles.
386
What can wood be used for?
Wood products (lumbar, veneer, plywood), fuel, resins, cork, and within a home.
387
What is a burl caused by?
Insect and mold infestation.
388
What does a burl cause?
A tree growth that has the grain grow in a different direction/deformed manner.
