Midterm 2 Flashcards
(312 cards)
1
Q
What is the equation for photosynthesis?
A
6CO2 + 12H2O (light energy) –> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
2
Q
What are the two reactions involved in photosynthesis?
A
Light and dark reactions
3
Q
Where do the two reactions of photosynthesis occur?
A
Light reaction –> thylakoid membranes
Dark reaction (Calvin cycle) –> stroma
4
Q
What is the stroma?
A
The liquid center in chloroplast
5
Q
Where do the thylakoid membranes exist?
A
In chloroplasts
6
Q
Electromagentic spectrum
A
All types of electromagnetic radiation such as UV light, X rays, gamma rays, etc.
7
Q
What are pigments plants use?
A
Chlorophyll a and b, and beta-carotene.
8
Q
What are pigments?
A
Proteins that are light absorbing molecules (only specific wavelengths and reflect others).
9
Q
Absorption spectrum
A
Set of wavelengths absorbed by a pigment
10
Q
What colour are we seeing when we look at leaves (in terms of the absorption spectrum)?
A
The reflected wavelengths, thus chlorophyll a/b reflect large amounts of green and yellow (most abundant pigment masking others).
11
Q
What gives the orange colour of leaves?
A
Chlorophyll a and b break down in the fall, but amounts of B-carotene remain that reflect orange.
12
Q
What are the components of mesophyll tissue?
A
Two mesophyll cells: palisade and spongy cells; stoma; and vascular bundles.
13
Q
What is the purpose of cuticle in plant leaves?
A
A waxy component that covers the outermost layer of plants protecting it from its environment (temperature and drought).
14
Q
List the components of a chloroplast.
A
Double membrane (outer and inner), thylakoid (flattened sacs), granum (stacks of thylakoid), and stroma (fluid part). There is a double membrane of the thylakoid with a thylakoid space in between.
15
Q
What are the components of the photosynthesis process?
A
Electrons pass through PS II, then PS I, and then CO2 is fixed by RUBISCO and sugar is produced.
16
Q
Where is the photosystem located?
A
The thylakoid membrane.
17
Q
What are the two components of a reaction center complex?
A
Chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor
18
Q
Explain the general process of a photosystem.
A
Pigments absorb incoming photons (light) and a light-harvesting antennae complex (loads of pigments) transfers it to adjacent pigments until it reaches the reaction center complex. Here the energy reaches a chlorophyll a molecule, which excites an electron moving to the primary electron acceptor and then the electron transport chain.
19
Q
What is cyclic photophosphorylation?
A
The continued cycle of using photons (continuously absorbed by pigments) to phosphorylate an ADP to make ATP.
20
Q
What is the purpose of P680 and P700?
A
Is the wavelength that each photosystem absorbs best at.
21
Q
What happens after the electron leaves the primary acceptor?
A
It gets passed down an electron transport chain where it loses energy it time.
22
Q
What happens to the energy that the electron loses as it moves down the electron trasnport chain?
A
Used to make ATP or NADPH
23
Q
What reactions are the electrons involved in the photosystems?
A
Redox reactions.
24
Q
OIL RIG
A
Oxidation is losing electrons while reduction is gaining electrons.
25
What is the first redox reaction in photosystem 1?
An oxidized form of Fd is given high energy from the electrons to turn it into a reduced form.
26
What is the second redox reaction in photosystem 1?
The reduced form of Fd + oxidized NADP+ + H+ transfer electrons to make an oxidized form of Fd and reduced NADPH (2 more high energy electrons).
27
What type of photophosphorylation occurs when there are two photosystems?
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation as an electron supply must be made for the reaction center complex (as it's sent to PSI).
28
What are the products of the two photosystems?
PSII = ATP
PSI = NADPH
(both energy rich molecules)
29
How is an electron supplied to PSII?
Hydrolysis of H2O (1/2O2 + 2H+ + e-)
30
What is the optimal wavelength of PSII?
P680
31
What is the optimal wavelength of PSI?
P700
32
What electron acceptors are involved in PSI?
Fd and NADP+ reductase
33
What electron acceptors are involved in PSII?
Pq, cytochrome complex, and Pc (passes e- to PSI).
34
How do the two photosystems work together?
- pigments of PSII absorb and transfer photons until they reach P680 (reaction center complex)
- simultaneously electrons are supplied to P680 by the hydrolysis of H2O
- excited e- passed through electron transport chain of PSII until it reaches P700 (PSI) - ATP is made
- PSI has pigments that absorb photons to excite the electron it received which is then passed down an electron transport chain where NADPH is made
35
What is photophosphorylation?
The use of energy from photons (light) to phosphorylate molecules (add P to ADP = ATP).
36
Where is the concentration gradient in the chloroplasts?
Thylakoid space has a high concentration of H+ while the stroma has a low concentration.
37
How does H+ move into the thylakoid space?
An integral protein uses the energy lost from the passing electron to transport H+ from a low to high concentration (active transport).
38
How does H+ move back into the stroma?
An integral protein, ATP synthase, allows H+ to move from high to low concentrations (facilitated diffusion).
39
What happens when the H+ is transported by ATP synthase?
Energy is released from this now reduced concentration gradient, thus turing ADP + P into ATP.
40
What is the purpose of RUBISCO in the Calvin Cycle?
Allows 6CO2 (single carbon) and 6 RUBP (five carbon) to bind to each other.
41
What do 6CO2 and 6 RUBP form?
Forms 3 carbon molecules of 12 PGA (lowe energy), due to the larger molecules breaking down from instability.
42
What is the PGA molecule provided with?
12 ATP and 12 NADPH to provide energy
43
What does PGA form when energized?
12 3 carbon PGAL molecules
44
What happens to the PGAL molecules?
10 go on to be energized by 6 ATP to form 6 RUBP again (5 carbons) and 2 form a six carbon molecule, known as glucose.
45
How much energy is needed to make glucose?
18 ATP and 12 NADPH
46
What is the problem with RUBISCO?
It can bind to oxygen as well thus decreasing its efficiency in photosynthesis (reduces the amount of CO2 that can combine to form glucose).
47
What is the transpiration-photosynthesis compromise?
A balancing mechanism with the stoma to allow for enough water to leave cell (also staying to keep cells turgid) and enough CO2 to enter.
48
Where are most stomata located? Why?
Under a leaf because it's away from the sun so that it reduces the amount of H2O that will leave (drain and wilt leaf).
49
What time of day does the stomata open?
Daylight as it provides photons for light energy. Early morning as well since not too much light to fully drain the plant.
50
What time of day does the stomata close?
At night because no sunlight to pull water out.
51
How do C4 result in more efficient photosynthesis?
Takes in CO2 from a mesophyll cell, specifically the stomata, and converts it into a 4 carbon compound where it's taken to a different cell (bundle-sheath cells). There is a lower concentration of oxygen here, thus RUBISCO works bette (C4 back to CO2).
52
Where do C4 plants exist? Give an example.
In warmer conditions.
ex. sugarcane
53
How do CAM plants work?
They keep their stomata open during night (allow CO2 to come in) to make a C4 compound and during daytime it closes so that a high concentration of CO2 remain near RUBISCO for photosynthesis to occur.
54
Where are CAM plants located? Give one example.
In hot and very dry environments.
ex. pineapple and cacti
55
What the chemical formula for cellular respiration?
C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
56
Photolysis
Breakdown of water with light
57
Where does cellular respiration occur?
Mitochondria
58
What is the purpose of cristae in mitochondria?
Highly folded to increase SA for cellular respiration.
59
What exists between the double membrane in mitochondria?
Intermembrane space
60
How much ATP are made in total during cellular respiration?
36 ATP
61
Where does glycolysis occur?
In the cytoplasm.
62
Where does the CAC occur?
Matrix of mitochondria.
63
Where does oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain and chemiosmosis) occur?
Across the inner membrane of mitochondria.
64
What enzymes are important in cellular respiration?
NADH and FADH2
65
What are the reactants of glycolysis?
Glucose (6C molecule), 2ATP, 2NAD+, and 4ADP
66
What are the products of glycolysis?
2 molecules of 3C pyruvate, 2 ADP, 4 ATP, and 2 NADH
67
What is pyruvate oxidation?
A grooming step before CAC to reduce a 3C pyruvate to a 2C acetyl-CoA.
68
What are the reactants in pyruvate oxidation?
2 pyruvates, 2 NAD+, 2CoA.
69
What are the products of pyruvate oxidation?
2 NADH, 2 acetyl-CoA and 2 CO2.
70
What are the products of CAC?
6 NADH, 2FADH2, 4 CO2, and 2 ATP.
71
What are the reactants of CAC?
2 molecules of 2C acetyl-CoA.
72
What type of phosphorylation does glycolysis and the CAC use?
Substrate-level phosphorylation.
73
Substrate-level phosphorylation
The production of ATP from the transfer of a phosphate group from a substrate to ADP.
74
What is the final electron acceptor in the ETC?
Water, from the formation of oxygen and H+.
75
Explain the ETC.
Uses electrons from reduced NADH and FADH2 to pass along to each electron carrier molecules (protein) in the folds of the cristae, where the energy lost from the electron is used to power H+ across the membrane from ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP.
76
How many electron carrier molecules are there?
Five
77
Oxidative phosphorylation
A process in which ATP is formed from electron transport from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen.
78
Chemiosmosis
Movement of ions across a membrane along the concentration gradient (high to low).
79
Where does chemiosmosis occur?
In ETC where there is a higher concentration of H+ in the intermembrane space, thus using energy to pass it through ATP synthase to lower H+ concentrations in the matrix, where ATP is simultaneously made.
80
How many ATP does NADH yield? Exception?
3 ATP, but in glycolysis the NADH made produces 2 ATP.
81
How many ATP does FADH2?
2 ATP
82
When was the transition to agriculture?
10,000 years ago
83
Agriculture
The science or practice of farming, including the cultivation of the soil for growing crops.
84
What problems were associated with hunting-gathering?
Needed to allows be mobile to get food; sometimes unreliable sources depending of yield, time of day or year; and needed an expertise in plants/collecting of them.
85
How were origins of agriculture identified?
These areas have a stable supply of food where explorers looked for dumping sites (food waste proved what they ate and if domesticated or wild products).
86
What is the difference between Old and New World?
Old World was Afro Eurasia where the explorers believed it was the only part of the universe until they ventured and discovered the Americas (New World).
87
What were the different origins in the Old World? Most important?
Near east, like the Fertile Crescent which was one of the most important origins, and the far eat for Yellow River Basins.
88
What were origins in the New World?
Eastern North America, Mesoamerica, and South American Highlands.
89
Agricultural revolution
A change due to noticing that crops will grow if seeds are planted, thus producing a rapid and dramatic change in human lifestyle.
90
Cultural evolution
A change due to a gradual inclusion of farming with hunting-gathering (forming food-collection strategy), with an increased reliance on plant cultivation over time.
91
Which revolution suggested evidence for the switch to farming?
A closer look at the time scale indicates existence of transitional stage as required by cultural evolution.
92
Why was there a switch to farming?
Farming allowed communities to grow and prosper, thus overtaking the small groups formed for hunting/gathering.
93
Why is it important to know the origins of plants?
Avoids inbreeding depression of domesticated plants because we grab genes from the original plants, resulting in hybrids (no deleterious recessive alleles).
94
What is the difference between shattering and non-shattering heads?
Shattering heads means that grains can easily come off the main head, resulting in poor collection, while non-shattering heads are almost stuck to the main head, thus easier collection.
95
How does the dormancy period compare in wild and domesticated barley?
Wild barely have a dormancy period, thus they can only be grown at certain times whereas domesticated barley don't have a dormancy period, thus growing whenever.
96
How does the size and number of grains compare in wild versus domesticated barley?
Since we want mass production, domesticated barley has more grains that are larger than wild ones.
97
What family do all grass members belong to?
Poaceae family
98
What are the types of inflorescence on grasses?
Spike or panicle.
99
What is inflorescence?
An arrangement of a cluster of flowers.
100
What is a spike inflorescence?
Non-existent or no real stem, so that CLOSED flowers are directly attached to the stem.
ex. wheat, barley
101
What are panicle inflorescence?
Branching off the main stem of OPEN flowers that are connected by a pedicel, so they are multiple flowers off one pedicel.
ex. oats
102
Explain the composition of a leaf and stem in grass plants.
A monocot with parallel veined leaves and a hollow stem.
103
Explain the composition of a root system in grass plants.
Fibrous root systems due to being a monocot.
104
Monoecious
Female and male reproductive parts exist in the same plant (can be on different flowers)
ex. corn
105
What is corn an imperfect plant?
Only has one reproductive system.
106
How many florets does a spikelet in grass plants contain?
1-12
107
Stolon
A horizontal stem in a grass plant that exists above ground.
108
Rhizome
A horizontal stem in a grass plant that exists underground.
109
What does a floret contain?
An awn, lemma, palea, stamen, and stigma.
110
What are glumes? Where do they exist?
Underneath a floret to protect them.
111
What is the purpose of the lemma and palea?
2 coverings that protect the reproductive parts inside a floret.
112
How many stamen does a grass plant contain within a floret?
3
113
How many stigma does a grass plant contain within a floret?
2
114
What does an ovary in a grass plant give?
A grain
115
What are the components of a grain?
Endosperm (large makeup), embryo/germ (small part), aleurone layer, and fused seed coat and fruit wall.
116
What does an aleurone layer do?
Contains enzymes that are needed for development of the plant.
117
What type of inflorescence does wheat contain?
Spike
118
What is a grain?
Fruit containing a seed that produces one cotyledon.
119
Why do the nutritional values in wheat flour and refined flour differ?
Refined flour is produced from just the endosperm while wheat flour is produced for the whole grain (+germ), so that all nutrients are provided.
120
What is the purpose of white enriched flour?
Puts nutrients back into refined white flour, to bring it's losses back up.
121
What type of speciation occurs during the evolution of wheat?
Sympatric speciation
122
Sympatric speciation
Species have a reproductive barrier so that they can't interbred, but there is no physical barrier that separates them (in close proximity).
123
Allopatric speciation
A population becomes separated by a geographic barrier, thus reproductive isolation occurs and it results in two new species.
124
Polyploidy
An organism has more than one full set of chromosomes.
125
What is an error that occurs in breeding of domesticated and wild plants? How is it solved?
In polyploidy, the new product receives chromosomes that don't pair resulting in a sterile hybrid, but fixed due to a duplication of chromosomes from self-fertilization (pair up now) and then forms hybrids again.
126
How many chromosomes does wheat have?
42 chromosomes (a double hybrid).
127
What is the purpose of gluten in wheat?
Binds ingredients together, thus trapping the air bubbles in yeast, causing the bread to rise and become spongy.
128
What is Celiac Disease?
An autoimmune response that attacks gluten fragments crossing small intestine walls and damaging intestinal lining.
129
Why is corn grow in alternating crops? Grown with what?
Alternates crops with soybean as they replenish nitrogen in the soil, so that corn can grow.
130
Why do the 3 sister crops (corn, bean, and squash) work well together?
Corn grows straight up, while squash spreads out more due to bigger leaves, and beans grow low/replenish nitrogen in the soil for corn to grow.
131
Where does each corn kernel come from?
A different flower.
132
Where are the female reproductive structures in the corn?
The ears (carpellate inflorescence) of corn cobs, where each kernel produces a style (silk -stringy projections).
133
Where are the male reproductive structures in the corn?
The tassel (staminate inflorescence) where pollen is produced from anthers.
134
What is the structure of inflorescence in tassels?
Panicle
135
What is the structure of inflorescence in ears?
Spike
136
What is the purpose of the endosperm?
To provide nutrients for the development of the grain.
137
What does the embryo consist of in the corn kernel (grain)?
Cotyledon (only 1), shoot and root apex.
138
Why is corn not used to make more bread products?
It doesn't contain gluten for bread to rise.
139
How much is the percentage of processed foods that contain corn?
70%
140
Where do eggs, dairy, and meat come from in relation to corn?
Feed corn
141
How is hybrid corn produced?
Alleles are continuously mixed up to avoid inbreeding depression from clone products. In the steps, one corn is detasseled so that it can't produce grains and is then pollinated with another corn plant to produce a hybrid.
142
What is corn low in (in terms of essential amino acids)?
Lysine and tryptophan (essential amino acids).
143
What are essential amino acids?
Those that we need to get in our diet as we can not make them ourselves.
144
Why is brown rice healthier than white rice?
Brown rice contains the endosperm and germ, so it has more nutrients while the white rice just contains the germ (embryo).
145
Where is rice grown? How?
A single species is grown in a paddie, which is a watery environment.
146
What plant is grown with rice? Why?
Azolla, an aquatic fern plant, which lives in these paddies where rice grow. It forms a symbiotic relationship with cyanobacteria (nitrogen fixer), so that the soil can gain these nutrients (less expensive fertilizer).
147
What is an advantage of lawn grass?
Very abundant, thus allowing a great deal of photosynthesis.
148
What are disadvantages of lawn grass?
Since they are all grown close together, there is no diversity, so any competitor or disease wipes out the whole crop. In addition, they consume a lot of water (very expensive to maintain).
149
What grass plants are used in biofuels?
Switchgrass, corn, and sugarcane.
150
What is the disadvantage of using plants for biofuel?
A lot of energy is put into the process, which is usually more than we received in the end (wasteful conversion). Also, we have to maintain a sustainable source for both people and fuels (pick between who gets what; corn).
151
Why is sugarcane a good biofuel?
Biofuel uses sugarcane's cellulose rather than sugar (don't have to pick between people or fuel for production).
152
What family do all legumes belong to?
The Fabaceae family.
153
What inflorescence do legumes have?
Raceme
154
What is raceme inflorescence?
Each flower is on a separate stock (pedicel) attached to the main stem.
ex. black locust and alfalfa
155
Umbel inflorescence
From one stalk, multiple flowers branch off one section (upside down umbrella).
156
Compound umbel inflorescence
From one stalk, it branches it other stalks that have multiple flowers (multiple upside down umbrellas).
157
Head inflorescence
A short, dense spike in which flowers (petals) directly emerge from a flat peduncle to give an appearance of a single flower.
158
Catkin inflorescence
A unisexual arrangement where it's a cylindrical flower cluster.
ex. willows
159
What symmetry do legumes have?
Bilateral (irregularly flower).
160
What is indeterminate flowering? Who has it?
Legumes have indeterminate flowering where the flowers blossom at different times. Since there is no terminal bud, the ones at the bottom grow first and it's a transition as nearer to the top are earlier stages of flowers OR buds.
161
What do legumes contain on their roots?
Nodules each with a rhizobium.
162
What is the importance of rhizobium?
It has a symbiotic relationship where the rhizobium gets carbohydrates from the plant and then it provides N2 fixation back for the plant + into the soil as well.
163
What is usable nitrogen for plants and animals?
NO2-
164
What do legumes convert nitrogen gas into?
Ammonium
165
How does ammonium get converted into NO2- or NO3-?
By nitrate-producing bacteria.
166
What is the seed in legumes?
The pea itself
167
What is the fruit in legumes?
The outside covering the pea, known as the pod.
168
Explain dry dehiscent in legumes.
All legumes are dry dehiscent where the covering (fruit) becomes dry, thus allowing it to open and release the seeds to grow in the environment.
169
What is meant by indehiscent?
The fruit doesn't separate from the cell when it's released into the environment. For example, wheat or barley, as their seed coat is fused to a fruit wall.
170
How much oil do legumes provide?
Up to 34% of vegetable oils with soybean producing 30% and peanuts producing 4%.
171
From what part of the plant do peanuts develop and where?
Flowers and underground, as the fruit (protective shell) develops from the flower which falls and develops in the soil.
172
Why do peanuts have a brittle shell?
Due to them being grown underground (dealing with abrasion from soil).
173
What is the dark part of the peanut?
The seed coat
174
Where is the fruit in the peanut?
The light brown shell that surrounds the seed coat (must be cracked open).
175
How many peanut seeds exist within a peanut shell?
1 (underdevelopment), 2 (typical = dicot), or 3.
176
What is the small bump of the peanut?
The germ (embryo).
177
What is the indent in the peanut seed (two halves)?
Endosperm
178
Why were soybeans known as cinderella crops?
Rags to riches where they were known as a garbage crop, but has become one of the most influential legume crop today.
179
Why can't soybeans be eaten raw?
Contain a trypsin inhibitor that if not heated to break down prevents enzymes from breaking down protein.
180
How are soybeans dicots?
They contain net-veined leaves.
181
What is important in nutrients of the soybean?
Contain all essential amino acids.
182
Why are soybeans grown in the same crops as corn?
Alternate where it provides nitrogen fixation to the soil.
183
What is the purpose of the pidgeon pea?
A breeding for hybrid legumes, so inbreeding depression doesn't occur.
184
Why is kudzu (a legume) bad?
It grows immensely in warmer climates on top of other plants, thus trapping sunlight from reaching them (dead plants).
185
Where are starches stored?
In modified stem and roots.
186
What happens to starch when it's needed by the plant?
Released as sugar to use for cellular respiration.
187
What are types of modified stems?
Rhizome, stolon, tuber, bulb, and corm.
188
Stolon
An above ground horizontal modified stem.
189
Rhizome
An underground modified stem.
190
Tuber
A modified stem in potato plants where it grows off of a rhizome.
191
Where is the starch in the tuber?
Throughout the modified stem.
192
Bulb
An underground modified stem of an onion where fleshy leaves and paper thin leaves surround a stem centered in the middle.
193
Where is starch located in a bulb?
The fleshy leaves.
194
Corm
An underground modified stem surrounded by harder leaves on the outside.
195
Where is starch located in a corm?
In the stem (center).
196
List the types of modified roots.
Taproot and tuberous roots.
197
Tuberous root
An enlarged fleshy root in sweet potatoes that has a separate stem located above ground.
198
Taproot
A main root that has peripheral ones attached normally in carrot.
199
How do white potatoes reproduce?
Asexually also known as vegetatively.
200
What is the problem with producing asexually?
Can lead to an inbreeding depression and no diversity due to an increase in clones is poor is one viral disease were to enter one plant (in close proximity the rest are dead).
201
Why doesn't the white potato reproduce sexually?
They climates they are no grown in aren't suited for this type of reproduction as they don't produce any seeds.
202
Why is a potato a dicot plant?
It has leaves arranged in multiples of five.
203
How are leaves arranged in a white potato plant?
Pinnately compound.
204
What is the problem with the shoot system in potatoes?
It's poisonous due to containing solanine, thus we are not able to eat this part of the potato plant.
205
Where did white potatoes first orginate?
South America due to the tropical climate.
206
Why did Ireland grow an abundance of white potatoes?
They were inexpensive to grow a hanging potatoes could have a bud from the eyes that would then produce another potato plant.
207
How severe was the Late Blight of Potato? When did it occur?
It occured in the 1840s and killed 25% of the population in Ireland.
208
What was the Late Blight of Potato?
A fungal-like pathogen spread to potato plants and resulted in them being inedible.
209
Why is it bad that companies manipulate potatoes to develop resistance to pest and other viral diseases?
More expensive for customers as we can't produce them ourselves.
210
What plant is a sweet potato plant?
A viney, dicot plant (net like leaves).
211
What gives sweet potato their orange colour?
Beta-carotene.
212
What roots does a sweet potato have?
Tuberous roots.
213
What type of plant is cassava?
A starch, shrub plant.
214
How are leaves arranged in a cassava?
Palmately compound.
215
What are the roots of a cassava plant?
Tuberous roots.
216
Why is a cassava root flushed with water?
Soaking caused fermentation of HCN, which is then flushed with water where it dissolves and is then evaporated by air, thus allowing us to use/eat the safley.
217
What does cyanogenic glycoside in a cassava plant produce? Why is it bad?
Cyanogenic glycoside is broken down by enzymes (these ruptured cells produce is from a process known as grating) to give hydrocyanic acid (HCN), which is bad as this leads to cyanide poisoning.
218
What stem do yams produce?
An edible tuber.
219
What modified stem does taro produce?
Edible corm.
220
What plant stores starch above ground?
Bananas
221
Why is banana production controlled?
Due to its asexaul production, any disease produced from home grown bananas could get out and kill domesticated ones.
222
What was tulipomania?
A period where everyone invested into tulips because they weren't well known but appreciated flowers. However, they sadly realized these flowers (red and white) were diseased and lost all investments.
223
Where does the majority of mitosis occur in the plant life cyle?
The zygote after fertilization as this is the very first cell that will allow for development of an entire new plant.
224
Complete flower
Contains the 4 whorls (sepal, petal, stamen, and carpel).
225
Pistil
Another name for the carpel.
226
What is the whorl of sepals?
Outer calyx
227
What is the whorl of petals?
Corolla
228
What is the whorl of stamen?
Androecium
229
What is the whorl of carpels?
Gynoecium
230
Incomplete flower
Lacks a whorl.
231
Dioecious
2 homes for each of the reproductive parts, thus male reproductive part on one flower whereas female on another flower that are separate from each other.
ex. kiwis
232
Why is corn an imperfect flower?
Because one flower lacks a carpel whereas the other lacks a stamen (due to differeing reproductive parts).
233
Tepals
A combination of speal and petals where they can't be differentiated (equal to the number of petals).
234
What is the ovary position in alstroemeria flower? Symmetry?
Radial symmetry and an inferior ovary (stamen is higher than ovary).
235
Why artifical pollination intentional in the 19th century?
Yes it was intentional due to carvings of breeding date flowers.
236
What did corn evolve from?
Teosinte
237
How does corn and teosinte differ in size and number of spikes (ears)?
Larger and more spikes in corn than teosinte (goes the same with kernels).
238
How are seeds dispersed in teosinte?
By shattering heads.
239
How are seeds dispersed in modern corn?
The husks can't be shattered, so humans must open them up for dispersal (dependant on human survival).
240
How do seed coverings differe in corn and teosinte?
In corn there are naked seeds where in teosinte they are covered.
241
Why is brassica oleracea (mustard species) good for artificial selection?
It can produce six different plants, such as kale, cauliflower and brussel sprouts, based on what organ is selected for breeding.
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Why are molecular technqiues used over artifical selection?
Speed up the process and can even produce new species.
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How are crops grown?
Monoculture where they are grouped into the same plant.
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What is the green revolution?
Large increase in crop production due to research and development of high-yield crops and agricultural techniques.
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When did the green revolution start?
The 1960s
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What are the inputs for the green revolution?
High inputs of water, fertilizers, pesticides, ensuring artificial selection, irrigation, etc.
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What is the goal of the green revolution?
Produce the greatest yield.
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What is a problem involving the green reviolution?
High population can impact soil processing and how much work is needed for the food.
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How are high-impact crops solved?
Tillage
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Tillage
The amount of porcessing of soil needed.
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What is the purpose of tillage?
Helps with seed bed preparation, burying crop residue, leveling soil, spreading nutrients, mixing in fertilizer, and activating pesticides.
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Conventional tillage
Plowing, disking, field cultivating, planting, and cultivating.
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Reduced tillage
Field cultivaing, planting, and cultivating.
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What is no tillage?
Planting and spraying ONLY.
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Conservation tillage
Combination of reduced and no tillage.
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What effects does tillage look at?
Soil erosion, water use efficiency, fertilizer use, and pesticide use.
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What is biotechnology?
Use of living organisms to provide products for humanity by using cell culture or molecular techniques to create plants with new/useful traits.
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What is the advantage of biotechnology over typical breeding?
Works much faster to enhance the development of the new trait into a crop plant.
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What are types of biotechnology?
1. Micropropagation
2. Molecular plant breeding (transgenic and gene editing)
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What does micropropagation involve?
Using plant tissue culture methods to regenerate new shoot systems from small pieces of plant tissue.
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How are tissues grown in micropropagation?
A small piece of plant tissue forms a callus where these cells grow into a plant/plantlet.
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Plantlet
Clone of the original plant tissue unless mutation.
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Callus
A group of undifferentiated cells formed from parenchyma cells.
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What diploid plants are used in micropropagation?
Seeds, embryos, shoot-tips, and stem tissue.
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What halpoid plants are used in micropropagation?
Pollen grains
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How can haploid plants be manipulated in micropropagation? What are they called?
Cells can be manipulated to produce double chromosomes, thus producing homozygous plants/cells.
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What are plant tissue grown in for micropropagation?
Nutrient media
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What does nutrient media contain?
Mineral salts, sugar, vitamins, and growth regulators like auxins that provide optimal conditions.
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What does one type of genetic engineering involve (transgenic)?
Allows for transfer of useful genes from one organism to a totally unrelated plant species.
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Transgenic
Organism that contains a foreign gene in its cells.
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What does transgenic technqiues require?
Identification and isolation of gene, and an appropriate vector (usually plasmid).
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What does transgenic techniques create?
A genetically modified (GM) plant.
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What are the steps to make a transgenic plants?
1. Incorporate gene of interest into plasmid
2. Introduce plasmid (containing gene) into host plant cell
3. Hope gene is incorporated into plant DNA (transformed)
4. Observe expressed trait in resulting plant
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What is a common genetic engineered transgenic plant?
Bt cotton
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What is the advantage of Bt cotton?
The cotton has a toxin-producing gene from a bacterial species that causes the plant to express insecticide (fighting insect pests), so money is saved on pesticide and reduces crop losses (increase in harvest).
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What is the disadvantage of Bt cotton?
No guarantee that it is safe for the environment.
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What new cotton plant is transgenic techniques working on?
Cotton that produces cotton-polyester fiber.
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What is the foundation of gene editing?
DNA modified by deletion, insertion, and/or changing nucleotides in vivo (within the whole organism).
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What species does insertion involve?
Introduces a gene from naturally interbreeding species relative.
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Explain gene editing process.
- CRISPR is identified in both separated strands (palindromic repeats)
- Cas9 is an endonuclease that cuts both strands of DNA before PAM
- Cas9 is guided by gRNA
- repair of the strands occur where the change/modification happens
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CRISPR
Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats
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What are examples of CRISPR/Cas9 system?
Diseases resistance, growth and productivity, and food quality.
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What are crops modified by transgenics (GM)?
Corn, cotton, soybeans, and canola.
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What are crops modified by CRISPR?
Rice and tomatoes.
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What are the problems with the green revolution?
Inputs of reduced water availability, fertilizer runoff creating algae blooms, soil irritation, etc.
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Compare soil erosion in conventional versus conservation tillage.
Reduced soil erosion in a conservation tillage as there are less steps versus conventional.
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Compare water use efficiency in conventional versus conservation tillage.
Increased WUE in conservation since less moving of soil, thus less evaporation of water.
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Compare fertilizer use in conventional versus conservation tillage.
Reduced fertilizer use in conservation as less eroded soil, so more nutrients stay.
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Compare pesticide use in conventional versus conservation tillage.
Increased pesticide use in conservation since the soil isn't worked as much, allowing pests to survive and reproduce.
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How to solve the pesticide problem in conservation tillage?
Grow with other crops that attract the pests or introduce a pest that will eat them (biological control).
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How to solve WUE in conventional tillage?
Do watering at night; vertical farming (more watered plants at top); garden hose; and using rainwater.
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What is the advantage of biotechnology?
Provides product to improve society (human antibodies, insulin) or provide resistance to infection/environment (herbicide, drought, and virus).
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What are the disadvantages of biotechnology?
Unknown side effects (can kill a plant, provide bad environmental impact, humans).
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At the end of meiosis I, are the cells haploid or diploid?
Haploid due to having 23 chromosomes.
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What is the orginal cell in meiosis?
Microspore mother cell (anther) or megaspore mother cell (ovary).
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Explain the process of meiosis.
Prophase 1 - The nuclear envelope and nucleolus are dissolved; chromosomes are duplicated; paired in homologous chromosomes; coiling and pairing up; around the synapse is where genetic recombination occurs.
Metaphase 1 - homologous chromosomes line up along equatorial plate and spindle fibers attach to each centromere
Anaphase 1 - Spindle fibers shorten pulling apart homologous chromosomes
Telophase 1 - sister chromatids end up in opposite poles
Prophase 2-Telophase 2
- same things but 4 haploid daughter cells are made
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Cytokinesis
Vesicles from the Golgi apparatus appear on the equatorial plate and fuse to form plasma membrane where the contents from a cell plate.
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What forms from a microspore mother cell?
4 microspores (tetrad)
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What does each microspore mature into?
A pollen grain (4 in total)
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What makes up a pollen grain?
Vegetative cell and generative cell
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What does the vegetative cell do?
When the pollen grain binds to the megaspore, it creates a pollen tube to the egg.
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What is the entrance of the ovule?
At the bottom of the megaspore known as the micropyle.
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What does the generative cell do?
Creates sperm cells that fall down the pollen tube to the egg.
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Mature microgametophyte
Pollen grain
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Mature megagametophyte
Embyro sac
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What does the megaspore mother cell produce?
4 megaspore, but only 1 survives
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How many times does the megaspore undergo mitosis? How many nuclei produced?
3 times with 8 nuclei in the end
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What are the 8 nuclei?
3 antipodals, 2 synergids, 2 polar nuclei, and one egg cell.
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How much sperm does a generative cell produce? What does this mean?
2, thus double fertilization
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What does the ovary develop into?
Fruit
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What does the ovule develop into?
A seed
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What does the 2nd sperm cell fertilize? What forms?
Both polar nuclei to form a triploid endosperm.
