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APRD 2004 > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

Scholarly Research

A

systematic, objective and careful

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2
Q

Everyday Research

A

anecdotal, experiential, non-systematic ex- google maps or yelp

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3
Q

Knowledge

A

the fact or condition of knowing something with familiarity gained through experience or association

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4
Q

What is the question of Ontology?

A

What is the form and nature of reality? What can be known? Reality is objective

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5
Q

What is the question of Epistemology?

A

How can we know what we know? Empirical science produces knowledge

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6
Q

What is the question of Method?

A

What procedures can we use to acquire knowledge? Experiments, surveys, content analysis

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7
Q

Paradigms

A

Unchangeable research patterns that we use over and over again
Normal science -> anomalies -> crisis -> revolution -> paradigm shift -> new knowledge new paradigm

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8
Q

Methodology

A

Refers to a body of methods, rules and postulates employed by a discipline; a particular set of procedures

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9
Q

A Market

A

an area or arena in which commercial dealings are conducted ex: supermarket ; an opportunity for selling

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10
Q

intRApersonal communication

A

what goes on within yourself

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11
Q

intERpersonal communication

A

face to face conversation between 1-2 people

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12
Q

Insight

A

The act or result of apprehending the inner nature of things or of seeing intuitively -> information that enables a company to determine why their customers behave the way they do IT IS THE WHY

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13
Q

Market research tells us __ insights tell us __

A

what ; why

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14
Q

Research Ethics

A

The specific principles, rules, guidelines, and norms of research-related behaviors that a research community has decided are proper, fair and appropriate

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15
Q

Norm

A

A standard of behavior that is shared by social groups; govern almost all of our social actions

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16
Q

Morals

A

individual beliefs regarding right and wrong; morals speak to something deeper within
-> Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis

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17
Q

Nuremberg Code

A

Torture masquerading as scientific exploration was a huge part of the Nazi agenda -> the code about ETHICAL RESEARCH emerged as part of the war crimes tribunal at nuremberg in 1946

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18
Q

Belmont Report

A

Issues by the federal government in 1979 partially in response to the Tuskegee Syphilis study -> purpose was to establish basic ethical principles and guidelines for conducting research on humans

nonmaleficence/beneficience
justice
respect for persons

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19
Q

Nonmaleficence

A

1/3 belmont report principles:
the idea that no harm should be done to research participants

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20
Q

beneficence

A

1/3 belmont report principles: the idea that research outcomes should be beneficial

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21
Q

What is the GACCS approach for insights?

A

Grasp
Assemble
Check Biases
Consider Alternatives
think like a Storyteller

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22
Q

Fundamental/basic research **

A

looks at the world at large and tries to generate new ideas or explanations about how the world looks and why

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23
Q

Applied research **

A

seeks to solve a specific societal problem or uncover more information about a particular issue; research conducted in business contexts is generally applied

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24
Q

Research Construct

A

an abstract term that is difficult to measure and can be understood differently by different people
ex: gender

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25
Q

Narrow Construct

A

THE GOAL!! to specifically identify the constructs that are important to your research and generate an explicit definition of these constructs

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26
Q

population of interest

A

the group of people that you are interested in learning more about -> identifying this is important to narrowing down a research topic

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27
Q

Sample

A

A portion of the population -> if the population is a cake, a sample is a slice

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28
Q

literature review

A

the summary of the to-date knowledge on your (narrowly) researched topic

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29
Q

Secondary research

A

obtaining and summarizing: information that can come from scholarly journals, industry reports, news, journalism, books and other credible sources

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30
Q

Primary Research

A

Research we conduct ourselves; what’s already known does not answer our question

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31
Q

3 Basic Steps to take in the early research process

A
  1. Clarify research topic
  2. Perform secondary research
  3. Enter primary research phase
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32
Q

Research Brief

A

a document created by an organization or agency that is soliciting (requesting) the research work -> it guides the efforts of people/organizations tasked with actually carrying out research

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33
Q

Parts of a research brief

A

background
objectives
research targets
research users
constraints
other considerations

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34
Q

Peer review

A

A process by which other experts review an article prior to its publication -> like 4% are accepted into journals

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35
Q

Double Blinded peer review

A

Reviewer and author identities are concealed from the reviewers and vice versa throughout the review process

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36
Q

Fake news

A

False or misleading content intentionally dressed up to look like news articles

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37
Q

DISinformation

A

the deliberate creation and sharing of information known to be false

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38
Q

MISinformation

A

the inadvertent sharing of false information

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39
Q

The 7 Types of Mis- and Disinformation

A

Parody
Misleading Content
Imposter Content
Fabricated Content
False Connection
False Context
Manipulated Content

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40
Q

Components of a research report/whitepaper

A

Overview/executive summary
introduction
background
findings
conclusion
method

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41
Q

Inverted Pyramid Format

A

The format news content frequently follows:
Most newsworthy info -> important info -> background detail

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42
Q

Qualitative Research

A

Research that seeks to gain insight and depth on a topic
- Evaluates, theoretical, interprets

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43
Q

Quantitative Research

A

Research based on the systematic calculation of data
- Counts/measures, statistical, processes data

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44
Q

Exploratory Research

A

investigating, exploring, or attempting to figure out a new, innovative thread of knowledge (can be both qualitative and quantitative)
- Poll aggregation websites

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45
Q

Descriptive Research

A

Allows researchers to focus on describing a phenomenon or understanding the details about people’s experiences (generally qualitative)
- Native Advertising

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46
Q

Explanatory Research

A

Focuses on explaining the reasons behind a phenomenon, relationship, or event (can be qualitative and quantitative)
- Influence of age on e-commerce site users

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47
Q

Cross-Sectional Research

A

Data is collected only once; a snapshot of data collected at one point in time

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48
Q

Longitudinal Research

A

Data is collected multiple times; helps the data to be more accurate and avoid or minimize errors like inaccurate responses

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49
Q

Panel Designs (Type of Longitudinal Research)

A

Data is collected from the same people at multiple collection points
- Aggressive thoughts at 10 years old, 15 years old, and 20 years old

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50
Q

Trend Studies (Type of Longitudinal Research)

A

Data is collected from different people (all drawn from the same population) at multiple collection points
- Registered voters’ approval of the president at Y1, Y2, Y3, and Y4 of the presidential term

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51
Q

Quantitative measurement

A

The use of numbers to describe a property of an object or an event

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52
Q

4 Levels of measuring Variables

A

Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio

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53
Q

Nominal Variables

A

1/4 Levels of measuring Variables
“categorical” variables - numbers serve as tags or labels; numbers are NOT placed on a meaningful scale; membership is both all inclusive and mutually exclusive
EX: Biological Sex [1=Male, 0=Female]

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54
Q

Ordinal Variables

A

2/4 Levels of measuring Variables
Possible values are meaningfully ordered; they do not establish the numeric difference between data points- they indicate only that one data point us ranked higher or lower than another.
EX: a student may be asked to rate the teaching effectiveness of a college professor as excellent (5), good (4), average (3), poor (2), or unsatisfactory (1).

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55
Q

Interval Variables

A

3/4 Levels of measuring Variables
“integer-level data”” -is measured along a scale in which each position is equidistant from the other scale points; measurement intervals are equally spaced
EX: Temperature: 81 degrees Fahrenheit is exactly 1 degree Fahrenheit greater than 80 degree Fahrenheit

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56
Q

Ratio Variables

A

4/4 Levels of measuring Variables
Ratio variables are interval variables with a natural zero point; a natural zero point simply means that zero means “none of something”
EX: Advertisement clicks
A banner advertisement can receive 0 clicks
A banner advertisement can receive 5 million clicks

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57
Q

Reliability

A

Pertains to a measurement approach’s ability to yield consistent results
Reliability refers to the level of clarity in the tool; Reliability is the consistency in our measurement.

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58
Q

Validity

A

Refers to a measurement approach’s ability to measure what it is supposed to
The ability or the potential of our data collection tool to capture and measure the construct or the phenomenon that we are interested in measuring; Are our questions/tests/other measures reflecting the real meaning of the concept under consideration?

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59
Q

Sampling - Population

A

the entire group of people that are the focus of a study

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60
Q

Sampling - Sample

A

A subset of the population; a small part of the population Ideally is a representative of all the characteristics of a population

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61
Q

Probability Sampling

A

1/2 Types of sampling
Every element of the population has a known (though not necessarily equal) chance of being selected for inclusion

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62
Q

Types of Probability Sampling

A

Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Disproportionate Random Sampling

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63
Q

Simple Random Sampling

A

TYPE OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
All members of a population have an equal chance of being selected for the sample; members of a population are selected at random for inclusion in the sample

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64
Q

Stratified Random Sampling

A

TYPE OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
A population is divided into subgroups (or strata); a random sample is subsequently drawn from each strata
EX: A population has 3 strata of interest:
S1=5,000
S2=3,000
S3=2,000
we would select:
Sample S1= 50
Sample S2=30
Sample S1= 20

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65
Q

Disproportionate Random Sampling

A

TYPE OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Like proportional random sampling but sample portions are not equivalent to the population proportion

66
Q

Non-Probability Sampling

A

2/2 types of sampling
Not all elements (ie. people) of a population have an opportunity to be included in the sample; Does not allow us to make inferences about a population!!!

67
Q

Convenience Sampling

A

TYPE OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Sample is drawn from those that are available or easy to collect data from

68
Q

Snowball sampling

A

TYPE OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Generate a convenience sample of respondents and ask sampled respondents to recommend others who might be interested in providing data

69
Q

Purposive Sampling

A

TYPE OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Researchers purposefully select from a group of people of theoretical interest:
Experts
Extreme cases
Typical cases

70
Q

Quota Sampling

A

TYPE OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Generation of a sample that has attributes proportional to a given population
Ex: we know that users of an internet platform are:
45% Caucasian (incl. Hispanic/Latinx)
25% Asian-American
20% African-American
10% Other Race
Using these attributes, we can use convenience sampling techniques to construct a sample with proportional race attributes

71
Q

Hypothesis

A

Educated guess about the way things will be

72
Q

Casual relationship between variables

A

Refers to the researchers attempts to determine that one or more variables (the IVs) have caused the changes in another variable (the DV)

73
Q

3 Conditions for one variable to cause an effect on another variable

A

Correlation
Time Order
Non-Spuriousness

74
Q

Correlation

A

1/3 Conditions for one variable to cause an effect on another variable
Variables A and B are related to one another

75
Q

Time Order

A

2/3 Conditions for one variable to cause an effect on another variable
Changes to Variable A result in changes to Variable B

76
Q

Non-Spuriousness

A

3/3 Conditions for one variable to cause an effect on another variable
The relationship between Variable A and Variable B must not be explained by a third variable (Variable C)

77
Q

Spuriousness

A

A relationship between variables that seems real, but is in fact explained by the presence of another variable
EX:
A seaside resort town observes that ice cream sales (Variable A) are positively associated with drowning deaths (Variable B)
More ice cream sales = more drowning deaths
Do ice cream sales cause drowning deaths?
No! A third variable (Variable C) explains the relationship between Variables A and B
Variable C = number of tourists

78
Q

Causation

A

States that A causes B

79
Q

Association

A

States that A and B are associated (correlated) with one another

80
Q

Random Assignment

A

ALL TRUE EXPERIMENTS REQUIRE THIS!!
research subjects are randomly placed in experimental groups

81
Q

Quasi-experiments

A

Does not use random assignment; cannot provide conclusive evidence of causation

82
Q

Pretest

A

Measurement(s) taken before delivery of the experimental (or manipulated) stimuli

83
Q

Posttest

A

Measurement(s) taken after delivery of the experimental (or manipulated) stimuli

84
Q

A/B Testing

A

Away to compare two versions of something to figure out which performs better; When conducting A/B tests there should (generally speaking) only be 1 thing different across versions A and B

85
Q

Some common A/B metrics (or measures) include

A

Clickthrough rate
Number of clicks/number of visitors
Time on page
Time spent on a given webpage
Bounce rate
Number of people who don’t click on page/number of visitors

86
Q

Content Analysis

A

systematic review of media materials (TV shows, movies, magazine ads, journal articles, etc) for patterns

87
Q

3 components of content analyses

A

Objective
Systematic (quantitative)
Focused on manifest content

88
Q

Manifest Content

A

Content that is observable (not inferred or assumed)

89
Q

Operational Definitions

A

Tells how you will measure something and forces you to explain how you understand or interpret a concept - it tells us HOW we will measure something

90
Q

Intercoder reliability

A

the extent to which two or more independent coders agree on the coding of the content of interest with an application of the same coding scheme

91
Q

Big Data

A

no single or universally agreed upon definition

92
Q

“big data” is defined by

A

Volume: big data is large
Velocity: big data occurs at an unprecedented speed
Variety: big data comes in multiple formats/takes on multiple forms

93
Q

Social Listening

A

Organizations can use big data to monitor how people are talking about them online

94
Q

Machine Learning

A

a subset of the larger field of artificial intelligence (AI) that “focuses on teaching computers how to learn without the need to be programmed for specific tasks”

95
Q

Personalization

A

Organizations can use big data to create personalized media experiences; survey users behavior and make inferences about that type of person

96
Q

Research question

A

A question around which research activities are organized
–> The knowledge we have isn’t enough for us to create a prediction of what could occur

97
Q

Spuriousness

A

a relationship between variables that seems real, but is in fact explained by the presence of another variable

98
Q

Tabular format

A

A method of post collection
Data is organized using columns and rows -> each column represents a variable while each row represents a unique respondent or media artifact

99
Q

Things we can do with missing data

A

Listwise Deletion
Parawise Deletion
Imputation

100
Q

Listwise Deletion

A

ONE OF THE THINGS WE CAN DO WITH MISSING DATA
Delete all cases with one or more bit of data missing listwise; delete everyone who is missing one or more response

101
Q

Parawise Deletion

A

ONE OF THE THINGS WE CAN DO WITH MISSING DATA
Exclude cases with missing data on a variable-by-variable basis

102
Q

Imputation

A

ONE OF THE THINGS WE CAN DO WITH MISSING DATA
Replace missing data with an educated guess of how the respondent is likely to have answered

103
Q

Measures of central tendency

A

descriptive statistics
Statistical indices that quantify the typical or central value in a distribution
EX: Mean, median and mode

104
Q

measures of dispertion

A

descriptive statistics
the measure of the spread of scores in a data set
EX: range (lowest and highest observed scores) and standard deviation

105
Q

Covariation

A

tool used to determine the relationship between the movements of two random variables –> most basic one is the correlation coefficient

106
Q

The 4 types of interviews

A

Informal
Unstructured
Semi-structured
Structured

107
Q

Informal interview

A

conversations to help the researcher gain the confidence of his or her informant. Interviewers hope that their informants will provide important information

108
Q

Unstructured interview

A

focused and is trying to gain information, but the interviewer has relatively little control over the responses of the informant

109
Q

Semi-Structured interview

A

Interviewer usually has a written list of questions to ask the informant but tries, to the extent possible, to maintain the casual quality found in unstructured interviews

110
Q

Structured Interview

A

Here the researcher uses an interview schedule —a specific set of instructions that guide those who ask respondents questions

111
Q

“Doing interviews” involves

A

Ensuring participants are comfortable and ready to talk
Taking notes and making recordings
Collecting demographic information
Recording details regarding time/place/etc. of interview
Developing an interview guide

**Most strategic communication research projects use unstructured or semi—structured interviewing techniques

112
Q

Types of interview questions

A

Descriptive questions - describe a behavior,
activity, or object
Structural questions - explore the relationships
among the terms/words informants use
Contrast questions - compare and contrast two or more behaviors, activities, or objects

113
Q

Qualitative coding

A

Analyzing collected interview - goals of qualitative coding are to identify patterns and odd/unexpected information

114
Q

Focus Groups

A

Group interviews led/guided by a moderator
Focus group research is frequently used in strategic communication contexts

115
Q

Group Synergy

A

The combined effect of multiple people talking and thinking about a topic

116
Q

Homogeneous strangers

A

People that dont know eachother but they are similar types of people

117
Q

Standardization in focus groups

A

Whether the same questions are asked of every group – that is, the extent to which the content of the interview is either predetermined or flexible

118
Q

Participant Observation

A

Learning about a social group and its culture (or subculture) through engaging in the group as a member

119
Q

Anthropology

A

Anthropology is the study of people, both ancient and modern, in their cultural, biological, and environmental contexts

120
Q

Two possible researcher roles in participant observation

A

Participant as an observer
Observer as a participant

121
Q

Participant as an observer

A

The researcher participates with the group being observed and is a functioning part of the group. The researcher is an “insider”

122
Q

Observer as a participant

A

The observer is a neutral outsider who has been given the privilege of participating for the purpose of making observations and recording them

123
Q

Weaknesses/problems associated with participant observation-based research

A

The problem of Focus
Unrecognized selectivity
Reactivity
Inability to speak due to psychological process

124
Q

The problem of focus

A

1/4 issues of participant observation
When you do participant observation, you have to be looking for something. You don’t just observe everything that everyone does in the group you are studying

125
Q

Unrecognized selectivity

A

2/4 issues of participant observation
Participant observers neglect certain important behavior because they think a different behavior, which is actually relatively trivial, is more interesting

126
Q

Reactivity

A

3/4 issues of participant observation
Observers affecting (by their presence) what goes on in a group is known as reactivity. Does your presence, as a participant observer, change the way people normally relate to one another?

127
Q

Inability to speak due to psychological processes

A

4/4 issues of participant observation
Behavioral observation doesn’t explain why, psychologically speaking, people do what they do

128
Q

Historical Research

A

The use of historical documents or events to learn about the present or future

129
Q

Generational cohorts

A

Business/marketing/communication research frequently breaks “people time” down into generations for historical research

130
Q

Case study

A

intensive study of prior events for the purposes of learning about or contextualizing current or future events

131
Q

How to do your own case study

A
  1. Identify your problem
  2. Find information on similar prior cases
  3. Analyze case
  4. Apply knowledge gained from case study to present situation or problem
132
Q

Rhetoric

A

Means of persuasion through strategically selected and stylized speech

133
Q

Persuasion based on ethos

A

persuade on the basis of a communicator’s personal characteristics or attributes

134
Q

Persuasion based on pathos

A

communication seeks to persuade on the basis of emotion

135
Q

Persuasion based on logos

A

Logos-based communication seeks to persuade on the basis of logic

136
Q

Modern approaches to rhetorical analysis tend to consider:

A

Aim: The inferred purpose of the communication
Mode: The medium facilitating the communication

137
Q

Visual Rhetoric

A

Both written text and accompanying visuals and imagery

138
Q

Visual rhetoric can be considered on 4 levels

A

The literal level: What is actually occurring
The textual level: The role that the image plays in the text as a whole
The inter-textual level: The way that the image connects to other texts
The mythic level: The way that the image connects to social themes, trends, and archetypes

139
Q

There are three major or steps to qualitative data analysis:

A

Description
Classification
Connection

140
Q

Qualitative data analysis - Description

A

Developing a thorough and comprehensive understanding of the characteristics and attributes of person, thing, situation, or event that is being studied

141
Q

Thin Description

A

A statement or summary of known facts

142
Q

Thick Description

A

Information the context of an act/behavior/situation, the intentions and meanings that organize action, and its subsequent evolution

143
Q

Thick description components

A

Context: the circumstances surrounding an event/behavior/situation
Intention: How a message is intended to be understood and how it actually is understood
Process: Seeks to illuminate the ways individuals interact to sustain or change social situations

144
Q

Qualitative data analysis - Classification

A

Putting things into categories (sometimes called funneling)

145
Q

Qualitative data analysis - Connection

A

the goal here is to take categories of information and explore the ways that this information may connect to other categories

146
Q

Qualitative data analysis -> Account

A

Ultimately, the description, classification, and connection allow researchers to generate an account - an intelligible, coherent, and valid summary of an event/behavior/situation

147
Q

Strategic considerations for presenting research to applied (i.e., non researcher) audiences:

A

Identify main points
Rank topics
Tell a story

148
Q

Anchor

A

Anchors are the most prominent or important finding - Probably going to be the most important insight

149
Q

Active voice

A

We found in our research . . . vs It was discovered by us in our research . . .

150
Q

Briefing

A

Refers to “an act or instance of giving precise instructions or essential information
** Briefs can come from either the client or agency side **

151
Q

Agency side brief

A

The agency will use briefs to outline a campaign or content strategy and/or to provide periodic “status” updates

152
Q

3 types of agency briefs

A

Strategic briefs
Tactical Briefs
Creative Briefs

153
Q

Client side Briefs

A

The client will use briefs to outline its key goals as they pertain to a given project, campaign, or initiative

154
Q

Components of an effective brief

A

Clearly lay out objectives
Succinctly provide all need-to-know information
Are inspirational/motivational

155
Q

Tactical/creative/project-based briefs (agency to a client) contain:

A

Reiteration of client needs
Brand/organizational statement
Overview of project goals and objectives
Problems proposed project will address
Any critical research insights
Target audience
Summary of key competitors
Primary message/campaign concept
Platform strategy

156
Q

Fallacies

A

Fallacies are “thinking errors” that can lead people to arrive at erroneous conclusions

157
Q

19 common fallacies:

A

M- misinformation
O- oversimplification
N - numbers
D - Diversion/distraction
O - Over-extension

158
Q

Common Fallacy - M

A

Misrepresentation of prior arguments or other people’s perspectives
Appealing to false authority, misrepresenting ideas of other people, imperfect analogies and comparisons, incorrect assumptions

159
Q

Common Fallacy - O

A

Oversimplification of complex information:
Mistaking correlation and causation
Oversimplification
Stacking the deck (selected instances)

160
Q

Common Fallacy - N

A

Numbers - Misleading/Incorrect use of numbers
Using seemingly impressive numbers
Misleading use of the term average
Misleading percentages

161
Q

Common Fallacy - D

A

Diversion/distraction - use of diversion/distraction
Diversion of attention by using emotional language
Pooh-poohing arguments
Begging the question

162
Q

Common Fallacy - Last O

A

Over-extension of one’s argument
Overgeneralizing (allness)
Pushing arguments to absurd extremes
False conclusions

APRD 2004 (3 decks)

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