Final Exam Flashcards
(162 cards)
1
Q
Scholarly Research
A
systematic, objective and careful
2
Q
Everyday Research
A
anecdotal, experiential, non-systematic ex- google maps or yelp
3
Q
Knowledge
A
the fact or condition of knowing something with familiarity gained through experience or association
4
Q
What is the question of Ontology?
A
What is the form and nature of reality? What can be known? Reality is objective
5
Q
What is the question of Epistemology?
A
How can we know what we know? Empirical science produces knowledge
6
Q
What is the question of Method?
A
What procedures can we use to acquire knowledge? Experiments, surveys, content analysis
7
Q
Paradigms
A
Unchangeable research patterns that we use over and over again
Normal science -> anomalies -> crisis -> revolution -> paradigm shift -> new knowledge new paradigm
8
Q
Methodology
A
Refers to a body of methods, rules and postulates employed by a discipline; a particular set of procedures
9
Q
A Market
A
an area or arena in which commercial dealings are conducted ex: supermarket ; an opportunity for selling
10
Q
intRApersonal communication
A
what goes on within yourself
11
Q
intERpersonal communication
A
face to face conversation between 1-2 people
12
Q
Insight
A
The act or result of apprehending the inner nature of things or of seeing intuitively -> information that enables a company to determine why their customers behave the way they do IT IS THE WHY
13
Q
Market research tells us __ insights tell us __
A
what ; why
14
Q
Research Ethics
A
The specific principles, rules, guidelines, and norms of research-related behaviors that a research community has decided are proper, fair and appropriate
15
Q
Norm
A
A standard of behavior that is shared by social groups; govern almost all of our social actions
16
Q
Morals
A
individual beliefs regarding right and wrong; morals speak to something deeper within
-> Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis
17
Q
Nuremberg Code
A
Torture masquerading as scientific exploration was a huge part of the Nazi agenda -> the code about ETHICAL RESEARCH emerged as part of the war crimes tribunal at nuremberg in 1946
18
Q
Belmont Report
A
Issues by the federal government in 1979 partially in response to the Tuskegee Syphilis study -> purpose was to establish basic ethical principles and guidelines for conducting research on humans
nonmaleficence/beneficience
justice
respect for persons
19
Q
Nonmaleficence
A
1/3 belmont report principles:
the idea that no harm should be done to research participants
20
Q
beneficence
A
1/3 belmont report principles: the idea that research outcomes should be beneficial
21
Q
What is the GACCS approach for insights?
A
Grasp
Assemble
Check Biases
Consider Alternatives
think like a Storyteller
22
Q
Fundamental/basic research **
A
looks at the world at large and tries to generate new ideas or explanations about how the world looks and why
23
Q
Applied research **
A
seeks to solve a specific societal problem or uncover more information about a particular issue; research conducted in business contexts is generally applied
24
Q
Research Construct
A
an abstract term that is difficult to measure and can be understood differently by different people
ex: gender
25
Narrow Construct
THE GOAL!! to specifically identify the constructs that are important to your research and generate an explicit definition of these constructs
26
population of interest
the group of people that you are interested in learning more about -> identifying this is important to narrowing down a research topic
27
Sample
A portion of the population -> if the population is a cake, a sample is a slice
28
literature review
the summary of the to-date knowledge on your (narrowly) researched topic
29
Secondary research
obtaining and summarizing: information that can come from scholarly journals, industry reports, news, journalism, books and other credible sources
30
Primary Research
Research we conduct ourselves; what’s already known does not answer our question
31
3 Basic Steps to take in the early research process
1. Clarify research topic
2. Perform secondary research
3. Enter primary research phase
32
Research Brief
a document created by an organization or agency that is soliciting (requesting) the research work -> it guides the efforts of people/organizations tasked with actually carrying out research
33
Parts of a research brief
background
objectives
research targets
research users
constraints
other considerations
34
Peer review
A process by which other experts review an article prior to its publication -> like 4% are accepted into journals
35
Double Blinded peer review
Reviewer and author identities are concealed from the reviewers and vice versa throughout the review process
36
Fake news
False or misleading content intentionally dressed up to look like news articles
37
DISinformation
the deliberate creation and sharing of information known to be false
38
MISinformation
the inadvertent sharing of false information
39
The 7 Types of Mis- and Disinformation
Parody
Misleading Content
Imposter Content
Fabricated Content
False Connection
False Context
Manipulated Content
40
Components of a research report/whitepaper
Overview/executive summary
introduction
background
findings
conclusion
method
41
Inverted Pyramid Format
The format news content frequently follows:
Most newsworthy info -> important info -> background detail
42
Qualitative Research
Research that seeks to gain insight and depth on a topic
- Evaluates, theoretical, interprets
43
Quantitative Research
Research based on the systematic calculation of data
- Counts/measures, statistical, processes data
44
Exploratory Research
investigating, exploring, or attempting to figure out a new, innovative thread of knowledge (can be both qualitative and quantitative)
- Poll aggregation websites
45
Descriptive Research
Allows researchers to focus on describing a phenomenon or understanding the details about people’s experiences (generally qualitative)
- Native Advertising
46
Explanatory Research
Focuses on explaining the reasons behind a phenomenon, relationship, or event (can be qualitative and quantitative)
- Influence of age on e-commerce site users
47
Cross-Sectional Research
Data is collected only once; a snapshot of data collected at one point in time
48
Longitudinal Research
Data is collected multiple times; helps the data to be more accurate and avoid or minimize errors like inaccurate responses
49
Panel Designs (Type of Longitudinal Research)
Data is collected from the same people at multiple collection points
- Aggressive thoughts at 10 years old, 15 years old, and 20 years old
50
Trend Studies (Type of Longitudinal Research)
Data is collected from different people (all drawn from the same population) at multiple collection points
- Registered voters’ approval of the president at Y1, Y2, Y3, and Y4 of the presidential term
51
Quantitative measurement
The use of numbers to describe a property of an object or an event
52
4 Levels of measuring Variables
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
53
Nominal Variables
1/4 Levels of measuring Variables
“categorical” variables - numbers serve as tags or labels; numbers are NOT placed on a meaningful scale; membership is both all inclusive and mutually exclusive
EX: Biological Sex [1=Male, 0=Female]
54
Ordinal Variables
2/4 Levels of measuring Variables
Possible values are meaningfully ordered; they do not establish the numeric difference between data points- they indicate only that one data point us ranked higher or lower than another.
EX: a student may be asked to rate the teaching effectiveness of a college professor as excellent (5), good (4), average (3), poor (2), or unsatisfactory (1).
55
Interval Variables
3/4 Levels of measuring Variables
“integer-level data”” -is measured along a scale in which each position is equidistant from the other scale points; measurement intervals are equally spaced
EX: Temperature: 81 degrees Fahrenheit is exactly 1 degree Fahrenheit greater than 80 degree Fahrenheit
56
Ratio Variables
4/4 Levels of measuring Variables
Ratio variables are interval variables with a natural zero point; a natural zero point simply means that zero means “none of something”
EX: Advertisement clicks
A banner advertisement can receive 0 clicks
A banner advertisement can receive 5 million clicks
57
Reliability
Pertains to a measurement approach’s ability to yield consistent results
Reliability refers to the level of clarity in the tool; Reliability is the consistency in our measurement.
58
Validity
Refers to a measurement approach’s ability to measure what it is supposed to
The ability or the potential of our data collection tool to capture and measure the construct or the phenomenon that we are interested in measuring; Are our questions/tests/other measures reflecting the real meaning of the concept under consideration?
59
Sampling - Population
the entire group of people that are the focus of a study
60
Sampling - Sample
A subset of the population; a small part of the population Ideally is a representative of all the characteristics of a population
61
Probability Sampling
1/2 Types of sampling
Every element of the population has a known (though not necessarily equal) chance of being selected for inclusion
62
Types of Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Disproportionate Random Sampling
63
Simple Random Sampling
TYPE OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
All members of a population have an equal chance of being selected for the sample; members of a population are selected at random for inclusion in the sample
64
Stratified Random Sampling
TYPE OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
A population is divided into subgroups (or strata); a random sample is subsequently drawn from each strata
EX: A population has 3 strata of interest:
S1=5,000
S2=3,000
S3=2,000
we would select:
Sample S1= 50
Sample S2=30
Sample S1= 20
65
Disproportionate Random Sampling
TYPE OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Like proportional random sampling but sample portions are not equivalent to the population proportion
66
Non-Probability Sampling
2/2 types of sampling
Not all elements (ie. people) of a population have an opportunity to be included in the sample; Does not allow us to make inferences about a population!!!
67
Convenience Sampling
TYPE OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Sample is drawn from those that are available or easy to collect data from
68
Snowball sampling
TYPE OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Generate a convenience sample of respondents and ask sampled respondents to recommend others who might be interested in providing data
69
Purposive Sampling
TYPE OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Researchers purposefully select from a group of people of theoretical interest:
Experts
Extreme cases
Typical cases
70
Quota Sampling
TYPE OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Generation of a sample that has attributes proportional to a given population
Ex: we know that users of an internet platform are:
45% Caucasian (incl. Hispanic/Latinx)
25% Asian-American
20% African-American
10% Other Race
Using these attributes, we can use convenience sampling techniques to construct a sample with proportional race attributes
71
Hypothesis
Educated guess about the way things will be
72
Casual relationship between variables
Refers to the researchers attempts to determine that one or more variables (the IVs) have caused the changes in another variable (the DV)
73
3 Conditions for one variable to cause an effect on another variable
Correlation
Time Order
Non-Spuriousness
74
Correlation
1/3 Conditions for one variable to cause an effect on another variable
Variables A and B are related to one another
75
Time Order
2/3 Conditions for one variable to cause an effect on another variable
Changes to Variable A result in changes to Variable B
76
Non-Spuriousness
3/3 Conditions for one variable to cause an effect on another variable
The relationship between Variable A and Variable B must not be explained by a third variable (Variable C)
77
Spuriousness
A relationship between variables that seems real, but is in fact explained by the presence of another variable
EX:
A seaside resort town observes that ice cream sales (Variable A) are positively associated with drowning deaths (Variable B)
More ice cream sales = more drowning deaths
Do ice cream sales cause drowning deaths?
No! A third variable (Variable C) explains the relationship between Variables A and B
Variable C = number of tourists
78
Causation
States that A causes B
79
Association
States that A and B are associated (correlated) with one another
80
Random Assignment
ALL TRUE EXPERIMENTS REQUIRE THIS!!
research subjects are randomly placed in experimental groups
81
Quasi-experiments
Does not use random assignment; cannot provide conclusive evidence of causation
82
Pretest
Measurement(s) taken before delivery of the experimental (or manipulated) stimuli
83
Posttest
Measurement(s) taken after delivery of the experimental (or manipulated) stimuli
84
A/B Testing
Away to compare two versions of something to figure out which performs better; When conducting A/B tests there should (generally speaking) only be 1 thing different across versions A and B
85
Some common A/B metrics (or measures) include
Clickthrough rate
Number of clicks/number of visitors
Time on page
Time spent on a given webpage
Bounce rate
Number of people who don’t click on page/number of visitors
86
Content Analysis
systematic review of media materials (TV shows, movies, magazine ads, journal articles, etc) for patterns
87
3 components of content analyses
Objective
Systematic (quantitative)
Focused on manifest content
88
Manifest Content
Content that is observable (not inferred or assumed)
89
Operational Definitions
Tells how you will measure something and forces you to explain how you understand or interpret a concept - it tells us HOW we will measure something
90
Intercoder reliability
the extent to which two or more independent coders agree on the coding of the content of interest with an application of the same coding scheme
91
Big Data
no single or universally agreed upon definition
92
“big data” is defined by
Volume: big data is large
Velocity: big data occurs at an unprecedented speed
Variety: big data comes in multiple formats/takes on multiple forms
93
Social Listening
Organizations can use big data to monitor how people are talking about them online
94
Machine Learning
a subset of the larger field of artificial intelligence (AI) that “focuses on teaching computers how to learn without the need to be programmed for specific tasks"
95
Personalization
Organizations can use big data to create personalized media experiences; survey users behavior and make inferences about that type of person
96
Research question
A question around which research activities are organized
–> The knowledge we have isn’t enough for us to create a prediction of what could occur
97
Spuriousness
a relationship between variables that seems real, but is in fact explained by the presence of another variable
98
Tabular format
A method of post collection
Data is organized using columns and rows -> each column represents a variable while each row represents a unique respondent or media artifact
99
Things we can do with missing data
Listwise Deletion
Parawise Deletion
Imputation
100
Listwise Deletion
ONE OF THE THINGS WE CAN DO WITH MISSING DATA
Delete all cases with one or more bit of data missing listwise; delete everyone who is missing one or more response
101
Parawise Deletion
ONE OF THE THINGS WE CAN DO WITH MISSING DATA
Exclude cases with missing data on a variable-by-variable basis
102
Imputation
ONE OF THE THINGS WE CAN DO WITH MISSING DATA
Replace missing data with an educated guess of how the respondent is likely to have answered
103
Measures of central tendency
descriptive statistics
Statistical indices that quantify the typical or central value in a distribution
EX: Mean, median and mode
104
measures of dispertion
descriptive statistics
the measure of the spread of scores in a data set
EX: range (lowest and highest observed scores) and standard deviation
105
Covariation
tool used to determine the relationship between the movements of two random variables –> most basic one is the correlation coefficient
106
The 4 types of interviews
Informal
Unstructured
Semi-structured
Structured
107
Informal interview
conversations to help the researcher gain the confidence of his or her informant. Interviewers hope that their informants will provide important information
108
Unstructured interview
focused and is trying to gain information, but the interviewer has relatively little control over the responses of the informant
109
Semi-Structured interview
Interviewer usually has a written list of questions to ask the informant but tries, to the extent possible, to maintain the casual quality found in unstructured interviews
110
Structured Interview
Here the researcher uses an interview schedule —a specific set of instructions that guide those who ask respondents questions
111
"Doing interviews" involves
Ensuring participants are comfortable and ready to talk
Taking notes and making recordings
Collecting demographic information
Recording details regarding time/place/etc. of interview
Developing an interview guide
**Most strategic communication research projects use unstructured or semi—structured interviewing techniques
112
Types of interview questions
Descriptive questions - describe a behavior,
activity, or object
Structural questions - explore the relationships
among the terms/words informants use
Contrast questions - compare and contrast two or more behaviors, activities, or objects
113
Qualitative coding
Analyzing collected interview - goals of qualitative coding are to identify patterns and odd/unexpected information
114
Focus Groups
Group interviews led/guided by a moderator
Focus group research is frequently used in strategic communication contexts
115
Group Synergy
The combined effect of multiple people talking and thinking about a topic
116
Homogeneous strangers
People that dont know eachother but they are similar types of people
117
Standardization in focus groups
Whether the same questions are asked of every group – that is, the extent to which the content of the interview is either predetermined or flexible
118
Participant Observation
Learning about a social group and its culture (or subculture) through engaging in the group as a member
119
Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of people, both ancient and modern, in their cultural, biological, and environmental contexts
120
Two possible researcher roles in participant observation
Participant as an observer
Observer as a participant
121
Participant as an observer
The researcher participates with the group being observed and is a functioning part of the group. The researcher is an “insider”
122
Observer as a participant
The observer is a neutral outsider who has been given the privilege of participating for the purpose of making observations and recording them
123
Weaknesses/problems associated with participant observation-based research
The problem of Focus
Unrecognized selectivity
Reactivity
Inability to speak due to psychological process
124
The problem of focus
1/4 issues of participant observation
When you do participant observation, you have to be looking for something. You don’t just observe everything that everyone does in the group you are studying
125
Unrecognized selectivity
2/4 issues of participant observation
Participant observers neglect certain important behavior because they think a different behavior, which is actually relatively trivial, is more interesting
126
Reactivity
3/4 issues of participant observation
Observers affecting (by their presence) what goes on in a group is known as reactivity. Does your presence, as a participant observer, change the way people normally relate to one another?
127
Inability to speak due to psychological processes
4/4 issues of participant observation
Behavioral observation doesn’t explain why, psychologically speaking, people do what they do
128
Historical Research
The use of historical documents or events to learn about the present or future
129
Generational cohorts
Business/marketing/communication research frequently breaks “people time” down into generations for historical research
130
Case study
intensive study of prior events for the purposes of learning about or contextualizing current or future events
131
How to do your own case study
1. Identify your problem
2. Find information on similar prior cases
3. Analyze case
4. Apply knowledge gained from case study to present situation or problem
132
Rhetoric
Means of persuasion through strategically selected and stylized speech
133
Persuasion based on ethos
persuade on the basis of a communicator’s personal characteristics or attributes
134
Persuasion based on pathos
communication seeks to persuade on the basis of emotion
135
Persuasion based on logos
Logos-based communication seeks to persuade on the basis of logic
136
Modern approaches to rhetorical analysis tend to consider:
Aim: The inferred purpose of the communication
Mode: The medium facilitating the communication
137
Visual Rhetoric
Both written text and accompanying visuals and imagery
138
Visual rhetoric can be considered on 4 levels
The literal level: What is actually occurring
The textual level: The role that the image plays in the text as a whole
The inter-textual level: The way that the image connects to other texts
The mythic level: The way that the image connects to social themes, trends, and archetypes
139
There are three major or steps to qualitative data analysis:
Description
Classification
Connection
140
Qualitative data analysis - Description
Developing a thorough and comprehensive understanding of the characteristics and attributes of person, thing, situation, or event that is being studied
141
Thin Description
A statement or summary of known facts
142
Thick Description
Information the context of an act/behavior/situation, the intentions and meanings that organize action, and its subsequent evolution
143
Thick description components
Context: the circumstances surrounding an event/behavior/situation
Intention: How a message is intended to be understood and how it actually is understood
Process: Seeks to illuminate the ways individuals interact to sustain or change social situations
144
Qualitative data analysis - Classification
Putting things into categories (sometimes called funneling)
145
Qualitative data analysis - Connection
the goal here is to take categories of information and explore the ways that this information may connect to other categories
146
Qualitative data analysis -> Account
Ultimately, the description, classification, and connection allow researchers to generate an account - an intelligible, coherent, and valid summary of an event/behavior/situation
147
Strategic considerations for presenting research to applied (i.e., non researcher) audiences:
Identify main points
Rank topics
Tell a story
148
Anchor
Anchors are the most prominent or important finding - Probably going to be the most important insight
149
Active voice
We found in our research . . . vs It was discovered by us in our research . . .
150
Briefing
Refers to “an act or instance of giving precise instructions or essential information
** Briefs can come from either the client or agency side **
151
Agency side brief
The agency will use briefs to outline a campaign or content strategy and/or to provide periodic “status” updates
152
3 types of agency briefs
Strategic briefs
Tactical Briefs
Creative Briefs
153
Client side Briefs
The client will use briefs to outline its key goals as they pertain to a given project, campaign, or initiative
154
Components of an effective brief
Clearly lay out objectives
Succinctly provide all need-to-know information
Are inspirational/motivational
155
Tactical/creative/project-based briefs (agency to a client) contain:
Reiteration of client needs
Brand/organizational statement
Overview of project goals and objectives
Problems proposed project will address
Any critical research insights
Target audience
Summary of key competitors
Primary message/campaign concept
Platform strategy
156
Fallacies
Fallacies are “thinking errors” that can lead people to arrive at erroneous conclusions
157
19 common fallacies:
M- misinformation
O- oversimplification
N - numbers
D - Diversion/distraction
O - Over-extension
158
Common Fallacy - M
Misrepresentation of prior arguments or other people’s perspectives
Appealing to false authority, misrepresenting ideas of other people, imperfect analogies and comparisons, incorrect assumptions
159
Common Fallacy - O
Oversimplification of complex information:
Mistaking correlation and causation
Oversimplification
Stacking the deck (selected instances)
160
Common Fallacy - N
Numbers - Misleading/Incorrect use of numbers
Using seemingly impressive numbers
Misleading use of the term average
Misleading percentages
161
Common Fallacy - D
Diversion/distraction - use of diversion/distraction
Diversion of attention by using emotional language
Pooh-poohing arguments
Begging the question
162
Common Fallacy - Last O
Over-extension of one's argument
Overgeneralizing (allness)
Pushing arguments to absurd extremes
False conclusions
