Final Exam Flashcards
Who wrote the Second Treatise on Government; The Reasonableness of Christianity, A
Letter Concerning Toleration, and An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
John Locke
Who built his philosophy off of logic and the Bible?
John Locke
Locke represents the spirit of rational liberalism - was an empiricist and a rationalist. What else?
- Believed in bringing all beliefs and reasons before the tribunal of reason
- But also acknowledged a supernatural reality and believed in divine revelation that was above - but not contrary to - reason
- Was religious but also a proponent of tolerance and avoidance of fanaticism
What was the nature of man according to Locke?
Locke says humans are guided by tolerance and reason. People are assumed to be equal to one another in state of nature and, therefore equally capable of discovering and being bound by the Law of Nature. Humans are naturally sociable and can be charitable.
What is the state of nature like according to Locke?
- People possess reason and good will (God’s gifts to mankind)
- Human in the state of nature can discern the natural moral law
- Man is a good but imperfect being, some individuals mistreat others
- People are also biased in their own interests, do not always follow the dictates of reason or understand it clearly, and have prosperity to sin
- Still, people are naturally Free and Equal
- The state of nature is a “state of perfect freedom”, “not dependent on the will of any other man”
- Possess Natural Rights to Life, Liberty, and Property
- Property precedes the state and the state exists to secure our natural rights that come from God
What is the Law of Nature according to Locke?
- Law precedes the state
- The state of nature is a nature of liberty but not of license
- Reason teaches us that due to our natural human equality and our duties to God and one another “no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions”
- By our reason, we can discover the moral rules that conform to God’s law
- The law of nature (the natural moral law) is not simply the egotistical law of self-preservation but the positive recognition of each person’s value by virtue of his or her status as a creature of God
- This natural law implies natural rights with correlative duties that we owe to one another and to God
- We have the natural rights to life, and to self-defense, and we have the duty to defend our life, and not to take it or subject ourselves to others in slavery - However the law of nature is deficient in three respects:
(1) it is not sufficiently clear because men are biased in their own interests
(2) there is no impartial judge
(3) the injured party is not always strong enough to execute the just
sentence of the law - In the state of nature, our rights are not fully secure because there is no common
superior, no common judge, no common executive, there is no settled,
established, known rules based upon common consent with no impartial judge to
settle disputes and no organ to execute the natural laws
Why do we need a social contract according to Locke and what is it?
- Locke states that “men living together according to reason, without a common
superior on each, with authority to judge between them, is properly the state of
nature” and that men are by nature “free, equal, and independent,” and that
political society is “nothing but the consent of any number of freemen capable of a majority to unite and incorporate into such a society”? - People recognize the desirability of moving out of the insecure and inconvenient state of nature and into a state of civil society where they can enjoy their rights more fully and securely
- The origin of the state is an act of voluntary agreement (Consent) of Free and Equal people
Locke’s notion of tacit consent as opposed to express consent
- Tacit consent:
Tacit consent, on the other hand, is implicit or implied agreement to be governed, even in the absence of explicit, direct consent.
Locke argues that individuals can give their tacit consent through their actions, behavior, or by enjoying the benefits and protections offered by a political society.
For example, residing in a country, using its resources, and accepting the protection of its laws could be seen as an implicit agreement to abide by the social contract and be governed by the existing political authority. - Express consent:
Express consent refers to explicit and direct agreement or approval given by individuals to be governed by a particular political authority or government.
In the context of Locke’s theory, express consent is typically associated with explicit acts such as signing a contract, taking an oath of allegiance, or participating in a formal political process like voting.
Who or what is sovereign in society according to Locke?
The legislature
- The legislature cannot act arbitrarily (must abide by the constitution)
- Responsible to the people
- Must protect people’s rights to life, liberty, and estate
- Government should be directed towards peace, safety, and the common good
Be able to describe Locke’s notion of “property” and its importance to his political philosophy (see e.g., pgs. 202-207 Abramson)
- Natural Rights to Property: Locke asserts that individuals have a natural right to property. This right is grounded in the idea that individuals own their own bodies and, by extension, the labor they exert. The mixing of one’s labor with natural resources is the basis for the acquisition of property.
- Labor and Property Acquisition: Locke argues that individuals acquire property through their labor. When a person mixes their labor with unowned resources from nature, they transform those resources into their property. This process is seen as just and in accordance with the natural law.
- Limitations on Acquisition: Importantly, Locke recognizes limitations to property acquisition. One of the key principles is the “enough and as good” provision, meaning that individuals should leave enough and as good resources for others. Excessive accumulation without making good use of resources might be seen as a violation of this principle.
- Protection of Property Rights: Locke considers the protection of property rights as one of the primary purposes of government. Governments are established through a social contract to secure individuals’ natural rights, including the right to property. If a government fails to protect these rights, individuals may have the right to alter or abolish it.
- Role in Social Contract: Property plays a pivotal role in Locke’s social contract theory. Individuals come together to form a political society to better protect their property and natural rights. The legitimacy of government is based on the consent of the governed, and its authority is tied to its ability to safeguard property rights.
Be familiar with Locke’s notion of self-ownership (pgs. 200-201 Abramson)
Locke states that “every man has a property in his own person,” and that the
“labor of his body and the work of his hands, we may say, are properly his,” and
that “men enter into society to preserve their property”
What are the basic purposes and role of government according to Locke?
- Responsible to the people
- Must protect people’s rights to life, liberty, and estate
- Government should be directed towards peace, safety, and the common good
According to Locke, where do our rights come from?
Locke wrote that all individuals are equal in the sense that they are born with certain “inalienable” natural rights. That is, rights that are God-given and can never be taken or even given away. Among these fundamental natural rights, Locke said, are “life, liberty, and property.”
Who wrote, “Absolute monarchy is no form of civil government at all.”
John Locke
Who’s main themes were constitutionalism, limited government, the inviolability of property, inalienable individual rights, and revolution by consent?
John Locke
Who had a prominent impact on American political thought and the American founding?
John Locke
Who argued that the government is really not established by a contract, but instead by a fiduciary trust (people have rights, government is the trustee of those rights)?
John Locke
Under what conditions is it permissible for the people to rebel against the government according to Locke? (see e.g., pgs, 220-21 of Abramson; 210-214 of Ebenstein)?
- The people retain the right of revolution if the government becomes tyrannical and violates the social contract - i.e. if it arbitrarily deprives people of their natural rights.
- This right to rebel should only be engaged upon when all other constitutional means to redress grievances have failed, when the majority supports it, and when the violations are persistent
- For Locke, government is dissolved not only when it is overthrown by an external enemy, but also when internally there has been an alteration of the legislature (e.g., if the legislature transfers it lawmaking authority to another entity or the executive substitutes his law for the legislative or neglects to enforce the law)
- The arbitrary ruler is actually the rebel against the law, whereas the people who
rebel are actually upholding the law properly understood - The ruler who uses force without lawful authority should be treated as an aggressor in war
- Rebellion should not be undertaken for light and transient causes and only against unjust and unlawful exercises of authority
- Government by consent coupled with the right of the people to rebel is the “best fence against rebellion”
Be able to list Locke’s limitations on the power of the legislative branch (see pg. 210, Ebenstein)
- Legislature nor the executive can act arbitrarily
- Government should have a division of powers so that the same entity that makes the laws does not execute or administer them
- The law should be applied equally to all
- Must be same for all and not varied in particular cases
- Laws must be for the common good
- Cannot take a person’s property without their consent or the consent of their representatives
- The legislature cannot transfer its lawmaking power to another entity
What are Locke’s limitations upon the Executive power?
- The Executive is under the law
- Executive cannot refuse to enforce the law
- Executive cannot substitute his will for the legislatures
- Executive cannot hinder the legislature from assembling or acting freely pursuant to its lawful powers
- Executive cannot change the method of election without the people’s consent
- Government must be responsible to the people and representative - therefore the legislative power is not absolute - it is fiduciary power
- The people are the judges as to whether the legislature and the executives are acting in accordance with their trust
Why does Locke place such emphasis on the role of the majority rule and the consent of the people? What is his basic defense of majority rule? (see, e.g., pgs. 213-219 of Abramson)
- Consent of the governed: Locke’s political theory is built on the idea that legitimate political authority derives from the consent of the governed. Individuals, in the state of nature, come together to form political societies through a social contract. This contract is essentially a mutual agreement among individuals to establish a government for the protection of their natural rights.
- Majority Rule as Expression of General Will: Locke argues that decisions made by the majority represent the general will of the people. Since the government is established to protect the natural rights and interests of the people, decisions made through majority rule are seen as reflective of the common good.
- Preservation of Natural Rights: The purpose of government, according to Locke, is to preserve and protect individuals’ natural rights to life, liberty, and property. Majority rule is seen as a method for making decisions that are in line with the overall preservation of these rights. It provides a mechanism for resolving differences and conflicts within society.
- Avoidance of Arbitrary Power: Locke is concerned with preventing the abuse of power by rulers. By emphasizing majority rule, he seeks to establish a system in which decisions are made collectively and are not arbitrary or tyrannical. This aligns with his broader goal of limiting governmental power to the protection of natural rights.
- Limits on Majority Rule: Importantly, Locke also recognizes the importance of protecting minority rights within the framework of majority rule. While decisions are made by the majority, there are limits to the authority of the majority, particularly when it comes to infringing upon the fundamental rights of individuals.
- Right to Dissent and Revolution: Locke acknowledges that individuals retain the right to dissent and even to engage in revolution if the government, acting on behalf of the majority, fails to protect their natural rights. This underscores the ultimate authority of the people in the political system.
Why was Rousseau described as a romantic?
The Romantic movement placed a strong emphasis on individual emotion and expression, and Rousseau’s writings often delve into the emotional and subjective aspects of human experience. His work, especially “Confessions” and “Reveries of a Solitary Walker,” explores his personal feelings and experiences.
Why was Rousseau described as a philosopher of paradox?
- Human Nature: Rousseau presents a paradoxical view of human nature. In his work “The Social Contract,” he famously declares that “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains.” This paradox highlights the tension between the natural freedom of individuals in the state of nature and the constraints imposed by society.
- State of Nature vs. Civil Society: Rousseau’s concept of the state of nature is paradoxical. On one hand, he idealizes the state of nature as a condition of freedom and simplicity. On the other hand, he suggests that the development of private property and social institutions leads to inequality and corruption. The paradox lies in the tension between the perceived purity of the state of nature and the negative consequences of social development.
- Emphasis on Individualism and Collectivism: Rousseau places a strong emphasis on individualism in his writings, especially in his autobiographical works and his educational treatise “Emile.” However, in his political philosophy, particularly in “The Social Contract,” he argues for a collective, general will that takes precedence over individual wills. This tension between individualism and collectivism is a central paradox in his thought.
Be familiar with Rousseau’s conception of the state of nature and the natural goodness of
humans and the role that pity plays in our natural state. Also be familiar with his
description of what “primitive” man was like in his natural state.
- State of plenty as opposed to scarcity
- Needs of life were few, modest, and easily met
- Solitary and self-sufficient lifestyle
- Self-preservation primary concern
- Idle and fond of sleep
- Needs limited: food, female, sleep
- No concept of future or time
- Good by default
- Noble savage
- Has pity for other creatures that resemble him
How does self-love differ from selfishness for Rousseau (see pgs. 232 Abramson)
- Self-love: For Rousseau, self-love, also referred to as “amour de soi,” is a natural and positive sentiment. It is the instinctive desire for self-preservation and the well-being of oneself. This form of self-love is rooted in the natural, healthy concern for one’s own existence, happiness, and physical well-being.
Amour de soi is considered a basic and positive aspect of human nature. It is present in the state of nature and is not inherently harmful. Rousseau sees it as the basis for individual well-being and survival. - Selfishness: In contrast, Rousseau introduces the concept of “amour-propre,” often translated as “self-love” or “selfishness” in a more negative sense. Amour-propre is a more complex form of self-love that emerges in society and is driven by social comparison, competition, and the desire for recognition and status.
Unlike amour de soi, which is based on natural instincts, amour-propre arises from social interactions and comparisons with others. It involves seeking validation from others, comparing oneself to others, and desiring the esteem and recognition of society.\ - Comparison with Others: Amour de soi is self-regarding and doesn’t necessarily involve comparing oneself to others. It is more focused on self-preservation and personal well-being. On the other hand, amour-propre arises when individuals start comparing themselves to others, leading to feelings of superiority or inferiority.
Why does Rousseau think that the growth of civilization and the progress of the arts and sciences corrupts humanity?
- Corruption of Natural Goodness: Rousseau posits that in the state of nature, human beings were naturally good and lived simple, uncorrupted lives. As societies developed, the progress of civilization led to the corruption of this natural goodness. The advancement of arts and sciences, according to Rousseau, contributed to the moral and social decline of humanity.
- Introduction of Inequality: Rousseau argues that with the growth of civilization, private property emerged, leading to inequality. The desire for property and the development of agriculture led to the establishment of societal structures that favored the wealthy and powerful. This marked a departure from the egalitarian state of nature.
- Artificial Needs and Luxury: The progress of the arts and sciences, Rousseau contends, gave rise to artificial needs and a culture of luxury. This shift, he argues, led to increased competition, comparison, and a focus on material possessions. As individuals sought to outdo one another in wealth and status, it gave rise to envy and discontent
- Social Alienation: Rousseau believes that as societies became more complex, individuals became more socially alienated. The division of labor, specialization, and the growth of institutions led to a separation of individuals from the natural, communal way of life. This alienation, he argues, contributed to a loss of authentic human connection and a sense of shared community.
- Moral Degeneration: Rousseau suggests that with the growth of civilization, individuals became more focused on external appearances, societal expectations, and superficial values. This, he argues, resulted in a moral degeneration where individuals were driven by vanity, competition, and the pursuit of recognition rather than by a genuine concern for the common good.
In his Social Contract, ______ attempts to answer the question of how it is possible for us to be free and yet obedient to government.
Rousseau
Who began his classic work with these words: “Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains,” and says man must be “forced to be free”?
Rousseau
Who writes that “to renounce liberty is to renounce being a man,” and that, “nothing is more gentle than man in his primitive state, as he is placed by nature at an equal distance from the stupidity of brutes, and the fatal ingenuity of civilized man.”
Rousseau
Who wrote “The Social Contract”, “A Discourse on Inequality”, “Emile (On Education”, and the “Confessions”
Rousseau
Be able to describe in detail Rousseau’s conception of the “general will” and its
importance to his political philosophy
o See Abramson pgs. 247-249; Ebenstein pgs. 230-234; 244-245
o What is the difference between the “will of all” and the “general will” according
to Rousseau?
o How is the general will determined?
o Why is the general will considered to be the Sovereign in society?
o What happens to those who dissent from the general will?
- Difference between the “Will of All” and the “General Will”: Rousseau distinguishes between the “will of all” and the “general will.” The will of all refers to the sum total of individual desires and preferences in a society. In contrast, the general will represents the collective will of the entire community, expressing what is in the common interest and is best for the whole.
- Determining the General Will: The most concrete manifestation of the general will in a healthy state comes in the form of law. To Rousseau, laws should always record what the people collectively desire (the general will) and should always be universally applicable to all members of the state.
- Sovereignty of the General Will: The general will, according to Rousseau, is sovereign. This means that it holds the ultimate authority in a legitimate political community. The government’s legitimacy is derived from its alignment with the general will. The sovereign authority of the general will is a key feature of Rousseau’s political philosophy.
- Dissent from the General Will: Rousseau acknowledges that individuals may have particular interests or desires that do not align with the general will. However, he argues that dissenting from the general will should be distinguished from dissenting from the will of all. Dissent from the general will is considered a form of acting against one’s own true interests because it goes against the common good.
Why does Rousseau desire homogenous societies?
Rousseau believed that a cohesive society with shared values and a common civic identity was essential for the functioning of the social contract. Homogeneity, in this context, refers to a shared civic culture and a sense of common identity that facilitates the formation of the general will. A homogenous society, according to Rousseau, is more likely to have a unified vision of the common good.
What is Rousseau’s definition of freedom within society?
Rousseau’s definition of freedom within society involves the voluntary submission of individual wills to the general will through the social contract. True freedom, according to Rousseau, is found in collective self-rule and the pursuit of the common good, rather than in the pursuit of individual desires without regard for the community.
Be able to describe the fundamentals of the social contract according to Rousseau (see Abramson pgs. 244-246; Ebenstein pgs. 228-230)
Rousseau’s social contract is a voluntary agreement among individuals to form a political community, establishing the general will as the source of legitimate political authority. Through this contract, individuals enter into a civil society that seeks to reconcile the interests of individuals with the common good.
Be able to describe Rousseau’s understanding and ideal of citizenship (see Abramson
pgs. 249-253)?
Rousseau’s ideal of citizenship is characterized by active participation in the social contract, a commitment to the common good expressed through the general will, and an emphasis on civic virtue and education. His vision seeks to reconcile individual interests with the well-being of the community within the framework of a just and harmonious political society.
- Not a spectator sport
- Cannot be represented
- Spartan mother: was more interested learning if Sparta had won war over learning about her sons dying in war (a true citizen)
