Final Exam Flashcards
(214 cards)
1
Q
the passive transport of water across a membrane, which can be a cell membrane, an epithelium, or an artificial membrane
A
Osmosis
2
Q
the net movement of anything generally from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration
A
Diffusion
3
Q
the substance that dissolves solutes
A
Solvent
4
Q
a substance that is in solution (dissolved in solvent)
A
Solute
5
Q
the aqueous solutions inside cells
A
Intracellular fluid
6
Q
the aqueous solutions outside cells
A
Extracellular fluid
7
Q
the state toward which an isolated system changes; the state toward which a system moves -internally- when it has no inputs or outputs of energy or matter
A
Equilibrium
8
Q
synonymous with equilibrium but emphasizes that the equilibrium state for an ion or other charged solute depends on both electrical and chemical effects
A
Electrochemical Equilibrium
9
Q
the amount of a particular substance that diffuses across a unit area in 1 s under the influence of a gradient of one unit.
A
Diffusion coefficient
10
Q
protein molecules that span across the cell membrane allowing the passage of ions from one side of the membrane to the other
A
Ion channel
11
Q
a channel that “opens” and “closes” to facilitate or inhibit solute passage
A
Gated channels
12
Q
the ease with which a particular solute can move through a cell membrane/epithelium by diffusion, or the ease with which water can move through it by osmosis
A
Permeability
13
Q
the state of having a high permeability to some solutes but a low permeability to others
A
Selective permeability
14
Q
a measurement of how much something changes as you move from one region to another
A
Gradient
15
Q
a mechanism of active transport
A
Pump
16
Q
the measure of the rate of the movement of water across a cell membrane
A
Osmolarity (=osmotic pressure)
17
Q
Animals’ bodies are _________ and water is the __________
A
solutions
solvent
18
Q
Most ion channels are __________ (can be either open or closed), and changing ion channels from open to closed or vice versa underlies much of animal physiology
A
gated
19
Q
Diffusion is always towards ______________
A
equilibrium
20
Q
Water always diffuses to the area of __________ osmolarity (osmotic pressure), regardless of the concentration of any specific solute
A
Higher
21
Q
What is the difference between passive and active transport
A
whether an input of energy is required to move a substance
22
Q
Explain the function and importance of the Na+/K+ pump (what is it for?)
A
It helps a cell keep its inside Na concentration low and its inside K concentration high
23
Q
____________ basically do all the work in organisms (and make up much of the mass)
A
Proteins
24
Q
the role of glucose as a __________________ in most animals
A
“transport carbohydrate”
25
Explain why fat is a better way to store calories long-term than carbs or protein
Fat is more calorie dense
26
All animals produce __________________ , but that in ______________, the heat produced is not enough to significantly warm the animal’s tissues
metabolic heat
ectotherms
27
Say which groups of animals are endotherms and which ectotherms
- Endotherms: Mammals, birds, medium/large-size insects
- Ectotherms: fish
28
Explain why regulating body temperature is so useful, giving specific physiological advantages
- You are able to live in colder climates
- Can operate at night
29
Describe the basic advantages/disadvantages of ectothermy & endothermy
o Endothermy:
- Advantages
· Can live in a variety of climates
· Don’t have to depend on movement in order to maintaine body functions
· Have more energy they can use for brain power
- Disadvantages:
· Have to use energy in order to maintain body temperature
o Ectothermy
- Advantages:
· Don’t have to use energy to maintain a certain body temperature
- Disadvantages:
· Have to constantly be replacing heat
30
Explain or draw the relationship between environmental temperature and metabolic rate for ectotherms and for endotherms
- Ectotherms: as temperature rises the resting metabolic rate increases exponentially
- Endotherms: increase their metabolic rate in order to stay warm
31
if an animal’s tissues are warmed by its metabolic production of heat
endotherm(-y,-ic)
32
animals whose body temperatures are determined by the thermal conditions outside their bodies
ectotherm(-y, -ic)
33
the maintenance of a relatively constant tissue temperature
Thermoregulation
34
temperature difference
thermal gradient
35
the range of ambient temperatures over which the metabolic rate is constant regardless of ambient temperature
thermoneutral zone (TNZ)
36
the unsynchronized contraction and relaxation of motor units in skeletal muscles in high—frequency rhythms, producing heat rather than organized motion as the primary product
Shivering
37
elevation of heat production for thermoregulation by means other than shivering
non-shivering thermogenesis (uncoupling of ETCs)
38
exchange of heat by passive transport between two closely juxtaposed fluid streams flowing in opposite directions
Counter-current heat exchange
39
an organized constellation of neurons and glial cells specialized for the conduction of electrical and chemical signals within and between cell
nervous system
40
a system that releases hormones into the blood
endocrine system
41
a cell that is specifically adapted to generate an electrical signal
Neuron
42
a specialized site of communication between two neurons, between a neuron and an effector, or between a non-neuronal sensory cell and a neuron
Synapse
43
the receptive element of most neurons, which receives synaptic input from other neurons
Dendrite
44
the portion of a neuron that contains the cell nucleus
Cell body
45
a process of neuron specialized for conveying action potentials (usually) away from the cell body
Axon
46
a molecule that is used as a chemical signal in synaptic transmission
Neurotransmitter
47
a sensory receptor that is a neuron, or a peripheral neuron that is excited by a non-neural sensory receptor cell.
Sensory Neuron
48
a neuron that conveys motor signals from the central nervous system to the periphery to control an effector such as skeletal muscle
Motor Neuron
49
a neuron that is confined to the central nervous system and is therefore neither a sensory neuron nor a motor neuron
Interneuron
50
the potential difference (voltage) across a cell membrane or other selectively permeable membrane
Membrane potential
51
cells in an animal’s neural tissue other than neurons. Considered support cells, ensheathing neuronal processes or regulating the metabolism of neurons.
Glia (Glial Cell)
52
a voltage change that makes a cell membrane potential more inside-negative (normally moves it further from zero)
Hyperpolarization
53
the membrane potential at which an ion species is at electrochemical equilibrium, with concentration-diffusion-forces offset by electrical forces so that there is no net flux of that ion species across the membrane
Equilibrium potential
54
a brief electrical signal across the cell membrane of a neuron or other excitable cell
Action Potential
55
an insulating sheath around an axon, composed of multiple wrappings of glial cell membranes, that increases the velocity of propagation of action potentials
Mylein
56
Explain or identify the different methods of control used by nervous and endocrine systems
- The nervous system primarily controls the moment-to-moment movements of individual muscles
- Control by the nervous system involves neurons that send axons to discrete postsynaptic cells. Neurons propagate rapidly conducting action potentials to transmit signals from point to point within a cell. Fast, specific control by releasing neurotransmitters at synapses
- The endocrine system controls prolonged and widespread activities
- Endocrine cells release hormones into the bloodstream to mediate endocrine control. All body cells are potential targets of a hormone, but only those with specific receptors for the hormone actually respond. Hormonal control is slower, longer lasting, and less spatially circumscribed than neural control.
57
the membrane potential = __________________
the voltage across the membrane
58
Describe what creates the resting membrane potential
The movement of K+ out of the cell + potassium sodium pump
59
Action potentials vary in ___________, but not in _________ (size)
frequency
amplitude
60
membrane-bound vesicles in a presynaptic terminal, into which neurotransmitter molecules are connected
Synaptic vesicle
61
a neuron or other cell that transmits a signal to a postsynaptic cell at a synapse
Presynaptic
62
a neuron or effector cell that receives a signal (chemical or electrical) from a presynaptic cell at a synapse
Postsynaptic
63
a neurotransmitter receptor molecule that changes the membrane permeability of the postsynaptic cell to particular ions when it binds neurotransmitter molecules
Ionotropic
64
a neurotransmitter receptor that acts via signal transduction to alter a metabolic function of the postsynaptic cell
Metabotropic
65
any increase in the inside positivity of a cell membrane, even if it exceeds zero
Depolarization
66
a voltage change in a postsynaptic cell (normally a depolarization) that tends to excite the cell
inhibitory postsynaptic potential
Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
67
a voltage change in a postsynaptic cell (normally a hyperpolarization) that tends to inhibit the cell
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
68
a complex process which describes how neurons integrate the receiving inputs from thousands of presynaptic neurons before the generation of a nerve impulse
Synaptic integration
69
a membrane receptor protein that, when it binds to its specific extracellular signal ligand, relays a signal into the cell by activating G proteins in the cell membrane
G-protein coupled receptor
70
a sensory cell that is specialized to respond to a particular kind of environmental stimulus
sensory receptor cell
71
in sensory systems, the region of a sensory surface within which stimulation changes the activity of a particular neuron
receptive field
72
a complex multicellular structure specialized to detect a particular type of sensory stimulus
sense organ
73
the conversion of stimulus energy into an electrical signal in sensory receptor cells; the electrical signal is usually a receptor potential
transduction
74
a sensory receptor cell specialized to respond to mechanical stimulation
mechanoreceptor
75
a sensory response to a chemical stimulus. Includes taste and olfaction (the sense of smell), as well as other chemical sensitivities
chemoreceptor
76
response of a sensory cell to light stimulation. Contain a photopigment that absorbs light and triggers a response
photoreceptor
77
the graded change in membrane potential that occurs in a sensory receptor cell when it is stimulated
receptor potential
78
Identify and describe the general function of all sensory receptors (transduction)
The basic function of a sensory receptor cell is to convert stimulus energy into an electrical signal (sensory transduction)
79
Sensory receptors are modified ___________ of sensory neurons, or sometimes, modified __________________ that signal directly to such neurons
dendrites
epithelial cells
80
Increased stimulus intensity is always “coded” as increased __________________, no matter what the sense
action potential frequency
81
the consolidated integrative part of an animal’s nervous system; in vertebrates, consists of the brain and spinal cord
central nervous system
82
consists of all the processes and cell bodies of sensory and motor neurons that are present outside the CNS. Provides sensory information (from both external and internal sources) to interneurons in the CNS
peripheral nervous system
83
is activated in stressful situations
sympathetic nervous system
84
rest and digest
parasympathetic nervous system
85
highly complex nervous systems allow for highly complex behavior, but are very ___________ to develop and maintain
“expensive”
86
a chemical substance that is produced and released by endocrine cells, and that exerts regularity influences on other, distant cells that it reaches via the blood
Hormone
87
A gland or tissue without ducts that secretes a hormone into the blood.
Endocrine gland
88
made of assemblages of amino acids and soluble in water
Protein Hormone
89
nonpolar hormones synthesized on demand from cholesterol, secreted by diffusion through the cell membrane and circulated in the blood or hemolymph bound to carrier molecules
steroid hormone
90
A system of blood vessels in a vertebrate that connects capillaries in the hypothalamus to capillaries in the anterior pituitary
hypothalamus
91
when one hormone opposes the action of another
antagonistic control
92
Since hormones go everywhere, the specificity of hormone action is determined by _________
what tissues and cells express receptors for that hormone
93
Any animal’s most immediate needs are getting rid of _______ and obtaining ________ in that order if __________ , and in the reverse order if ____________
CO2
O2
terrestrial
aquatic
94
animals breathe (pump air or water over their respiratory membrane) to increase the __________________ across those respiratory membranes
rate of gas transport
95
Water costs more energy to breathe than air because it’s _________
denser
96
What is the draw and relationship between solubility of a gas in water and temperature
gas solubility decreases with increasing temperature
97
What is the draw and relationship between solubility of a gas in water and salinity
Gas solubility decreases with decreasing salinity.
98
Explain why tiny animals (microscopic animals) do not need respiratory systems, but larger animals do
In tiny animals O2 is able to move as fast as needed from the environment to all parts of the body by diffusion. In larger animals however diffusion of O2 within the body occurs through body fluids and tissues and diffusion does work in larger animals
99
a thin layer of tissue consisting typically of just one or two simple epithelia (i.e., one or two cell layers)—separates the internal tissues of the animal from the environmental medium (air or water)
gas-exchange membrane
100
The process by which an animal gains O2 from its environment and voids CO2 into its environment.
external respiration (breathing)
101
invaginated into the body and contain the environmental medium
lung
102
located on an exposed body surface and project directly into the surrounding environmental medium
gill
103
flowing through a tube → example: blood flowing through a blood vessel
unidirectional breathing
104
back and forth flow, in and out of a blind-ended cavity → example: lungs of mammals
tidal breathing
105
A type of gill ventilation observed in certain types of fish (e.g., tunas) in which the fish holds its mouth open as it swims forward, thereby using its swimming motions to drive water over its gills.
ram ventilation
106
the blind-ended terminations of the branchings of the respiratory tract that form the surface for exchange of gases between the air and the blood
alveolus/alveoli
107
a sheet of muscular and connective tissue that completely separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities
diaphragm
108
the medium and the blood flow in opposite directions
countercurrent gas exchange
109
some fish breathe ______, benefiting from the high O2 content of air compared to water
air
110
Describe or identify the similarities and differences between lungs and gills
Lungs = air breathing
Gills = water breathing
111
Why are gas exchange membranes highly folded?
The folds greatly increase the membrane surface area which in turn increases the rate of diffusion of oxygen into and out of the blood
112
Identify which animals can be expected to have larger, thinner gas exchange membranes and exactly why.
Tuna and animals that must acquire O2 at high rates
113
Describe the ways in which bird breathing and lungs are fundamentally different from that of other vertebrates
- Lungs don't expand and contract air, it is just being pushing through the air sacs
- Air sacs extend into the bones
- Unidirectional air flow
- Cross current gas exchange
- Membrane is really thin and surface area is higher than any other animals
114
Any metalloprotein pigment that undergo reversible combination with O2 and thus are able to pick up O2 in certain places in an animal’s body and release it in other places
respiratory pigment
115
Formed by the combination of heme with a globin protein. Undergoes reversible combination with O2 at the heme loci.
hemoglobin
116
- The combination of respiratory pigments with O2
- Oxygenation of this sort is reversible and not equivalent to oxidation.
oxygenated
117
The release of O2 from a combined state with a respiratory pigment such as hemoglobin
deoxygenated
118
the ease with which hemoglobin binds with the O2 molecules it encounters
affinity
119
A hemoglobin-containing cell in the blood of an animal.
erythrocyte (red blood cell)
120
Referring to the O2-carrying properties of blood, a graph of the amount of O2 per unit of blood volume as a function of the O2 partial pressure of the blood
oxygen equilibrium curve
121
Blood hemoglobins play important roles as acid–base _________ and participate in blood CO2 transport as well as O2 transport
buffers
122
A state in which the pH of the body fluids is excessively acid.
acidosis
123
A state in which the pH of the body fluids is excessively alkaline.
alkalosis
124
Although most animals have respiratory pigments, only some have __________
hemoglobin
125
Only vertebrates keep their hemoglobins in ___________
erythrocytes
126
In a resting endotherm, only a ________ proportion of the oxygen brought to the tissues by hemoglobin is used up; and that this means there is a lot of ___________ in the system: possibility for exercise
small
“expansibility”
127
Explain what causes different animals to have differently-shaped oxygen equilibrium curves
- endothermy: If an animal is endothermic they need more oxygen in order to maintain their body temperature
- metabolic rate
128
An aquatic animal that maintains a blood osmotic pressure higher than the osmotic pressure of the water in which it lives.
Hyperosmotic regulator
129
Where are hyperosmotic regulators typically found?
In freshwater
130
Describe and draw the relationship between an animal’s size and its evaporative water loss
- Animals that are smaller and lighter in mass have the highest weight-specific EWLs
- Animals that are larger and heavier in mass have the highest total EWLs
131
An aquatic animal that maintains a blood osmotic pressure lower than the osmotic pressure of the water in which it lives.
Hyposmotic regulator
132
Organs other than kidneys that excrete concentrated solutions of inorganic ions.
Salt gland
133
Animals that are restricted to humid, water-rich terrestrial microenvironments; unable to live steadily in the open air.
Humidic animals
134
Able to live steadily in the open air and thus face the full drying power of the terrestrial environment
Xeric animals
135
- The fluids between cells in tissues. - In animals with closed circulatory systems, the fluids between cells in tissues other than blood
Interstitial fluid
136
The part of the blood that remains after blood cells are removed; the part of the blood other than cells.
Blood plasma
137
- A synonym for blood in an animal that has an open circulatory system
- Emphasizes that the blood in such animals includes all extracellular fluids, and thus that there is no distinction between the fluid that is in the blood vessels at any one time and the interstitial fluid between tissue cells.
Hemolymph
138
Having a higher osmotic pressure. Said of a solution in comparison to another, specific solution
Hyperosmotic
139
Having the same osmotic pressure. Said of a solution in comparison to another, specific solution
Isosmotic
140
The maintenance of a constant or nearly constant osmotic pressure in body fluids regardless of the osmotic pressure in the external environment.
Osmoregulation/Osmoregulator
141
A state in which the osmotic pressure of the body fluids matches, and varies with, the osmotic pressure in the external environment.
Osmoconforming/Osmoconformer
142
- Water that is formed by chemical reaction within the body.
- Example: when glucose is oxidized, one of the products is H2O that did not previously exist
Metabolic water
143
What three things are all in equilibrium with respect to total osmolality?
plasma
interstitial fluid
intracellular fluid
144
Recognize that plasma and interstitial fluid are in equilibrium for _____________ , but these are not usually similar to intracellular ionic composition (remember all those Na+ and K+ pumps!)
individual ions
145
What is the fundamental challenge to terrestrial life?
dehydration/desiccation
146
What percentage of terrestrial animals are water?
50%-60%
147
Most marine invertebrates are ___________ to seawater
isosmotic
148
Most marine fish are ___________ to seawater
hyposmotic
149
Seawater is 1 Osm = ________ mOsm
1000
150
Explain the function and importance of the Na+/K+ pump
It helps a cell keep its inside Na concentration low and its inside K concentration high
151
Why is fat a better way to store calories long-term than carbs or protein
They exceed proteins and carbohydrates in their energy value per unit of weight
152
Explain what the variable a “means,” and how it varies for different groups of animals, in M=aWb
a value determines if an animal if endothermic (high a value) or exothermic (low a value)
153
Identify the different methods of control used by nervous system
- The nervous system primarily controls the moment-to-moment movements of individual muscles
- Fast, specific control by releasing neurotransmitters at synapses
154
Identify the different methods of control used by endocrine system
The endocrine system controls prolonged and widespread activities
155
Describe what creates the resting membrane potential
The movement of K+ out of the cell through the leak channels
156
Explain how and why a gill or lung’s effectiveness at removing O2 from the air or water is affected by whether breathing is tidal or unidirectional
Because fresh air is constantly being brought in and not mixed with stale air and old air does not have to go out the same way it came in.
157
Why do ectotherms, but not endotherms, normally express mixes of many different hemoglobins, with different O2 binding characteristics?
ectotherms need to have hemoglobin isomers that work at different temperatures
158
Differentiate between regulating your total osmolality and regulating specific ion concentrations (and recognize that all animals do the latter)
Specific ionic regulating: the maintenance of a constant or nearly constant concentration of an inorganic ion in the plasma
Total osmolality regulation: the maintenance of a constant or nearly constant osmotic pressure in the blood plasma
159
Explain why a reduced permeability of an animal’s skin/integument is an effective osmoregulatory strategy for any osmoregulating organism; explain why gills/lungs must be an exception to this; describe how skin is made impermeable to water
- it reduces their rates of passive water and ion exchange and thus in reducing their energy costs of maintaining a normal blood composition
- Lungs + gills are permeable to both water and oxygen because it is impossible to have a membrane that is permeable to oxygen that is not permeable to water unlike skin that has lipids that make it impermeable to water.
160
Given a pair or group of animals, rank their evaporative water loss (as a percent of body weight, per unit time) and explain your rankings
Proportional to weight-specific rate of EWL
161
Describe the major methods animals use to minimize urinary water loss
- Make urine more concentrated
- Making nitrogenous waste not water soluble
162
Describe or identify the difference in composition of blood and (the initial) filtrate in the kidney
Kidneys do not have plasma proteins and red blood cells but blood does
163
Explain how the loop of Henle (nephron loop) produces a osmolarity gradient from less concentrated to more concentrated (low to high Osm) from the cortex to the inner medulla of the kidney
- Puts sodium on the outside of the tube which attracts water and water leaves the tube as it descends causing the osmolarity to increase.
- Puts sodium on the outside of the tube and lines the tube with cholesterol making it impermeable to water so sodium leaves as it ascends causing the osmolarity to decrease again.
164
Identify the basic functions in mammals of the loop of Henle (nephron loop)
it makes urine more salty by extracting water
165
List or identify the general functions of kidneys
- Regulates the volume of blood
- Regulates the total osmolality of blood
- Regulates the concentration of waste products in the blood
- Regulates the concentrations of ions, especially Na, K, and HCO3 in the blood
- Regulates the pH in the blood (main way to regulate pH in the blood is breathing but kidney is long term)
166
Explain why osmoregulation costs energy (what is it spent on?); explain why it costs more energy in marine than freshwater fish
- Ion pumping
- Most types of freshwater animals have far less concentrated body fluids than their ocean relatives.
167
What is the diffusion equation
J=D (C1-C2)/ X2
168
Why are lipids (fats) the most effective way to store calories?
They can store more calories per gram
169
What is the total metabolic rate formula
M=aWb
170
Explain how the value of b affects the range of sizes of animals on earth
higher b value = more very small animals
lower b value = more very large animals
171
Describe some characteristics animals with high weight-specific metabolic rates have (to accommodate those high rates)
- Small species have far higher heart rates than do large ones
- Small species breathe faster
172
Give examples of different kinds of mechanoreceptors or chemoreceptors and explain what information they convey and how they do it.
- Mechanoreceptor (touch and hearing) → has stretch-gated ion channels to respond to stimuli
- Chemoreceptors (smell and taste) → using G- protein coupling transduction mechanisms
- Taste uses ionotropic
173
Identify or list the structural families of hormones
steroids, peptides, and amines
174
Explain the difference between simple and facilitated diffusion and which substances are likely to be able to use simple diffusion.
Simple diffusion: the direct transport of molecules across the cell membrane that is allowed by the cell membrane.
Small hydrophobic molecules → oxygen and carbon dioxide
Facilitated diffusion: occurs through the action of transmembrane proteins such as carrier proteins, channel proteins, and aquaporins.
Example: movement of sodium through a sodium channel + transport of glucose from the blood plasma into cells throughout an animal’s body
175
Explain the importance of a high surface area: volume ratio in physiological systems, including giving examples
- High surface area releases more heat
- Lower surface area retains more heat
176
List the major substances that move between cells and blood
O2
CO2
glucose
nitrogenous wastes
177
Describe the role of the stomach in digestion and absorption in vertebrate animals
- stores ingested food
- initiates protein digestion
- breaks up food by a combination of muscular, acid, and digestive-enzyme effects
178
Describe the role of the small intestine (midgut) in digestion and absorption in vertebrate
- the principal site of digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids
- the principal site of absorption
- the principal structure where the products of digestion of all three categories of foodstuffs (as well as vitamins, minerals, and water) are taken up into the blood or lymph
179
Describe the role of the large intestine (hindgut) in digestion and absorption in vertebrate animals
- store wastes between defecations -- - complete the absorption of needed water and minerals from the gut contents prior to elimination
180
Describe some characteristics animals with high weight-specific metabolic rates have (to accommodate those high rates)
- Small species have higher heart rates
- Small species breathe faster
181
When and where in a neuron does PSPs occur
after the opening of K+ channels
in dendrites
182
When and where in a neuron does APs occur
after the opening of Na+ channels
in axons
183
How do sensory receptors “fit in” to an overall neural circuit
They are presynaptic to one or more interneurons which then route sensory information for processing
184
Give examples of different kinds of mechanoreceptors or chemoreceptors and explain what information they convey and how they do it
- Mechanoreceptor (touch and hearing) → has stretch-gated ion channels to respond to stimuli
- Chemoreceptors (smell and taste) → has transduction mechanisms
185
Describe situations in which nervous or endocrine control would be better, and why
- Neuronal signals are fast and addressed → rapid movements of discrete skeletal muscles
- Endocrine signals are slow and broadcast → metabolic changes
186
We could expect to find the most oxygen (or any soluble gas) in water that is ________ and ____________
cold
not very salty
187
Affinity for O2 ___________ as blood pH decreases
decreases
188
Affinity for O2 ___________ as partial pressure of O2 in the blood increases
decreases
189
Affinity for O2 __________ as temperature increases
decreases
190
Affinity for O2 __________ as CO2 partial pressure increases
increases
191
A key difference between the proximal convoluted tubule and distal convoluted tubule is that reabsorption is basically ________ at the PCT and ___________ (according to what’s needed) at the DCT
fixed
variable
192
The largest classes of invertebrates also have ______________ structures that produce and filter urine
kidney-like
193
Insects are the only invertebrate class that can produce a _____________ urine
hyperosmotic
194
Describe what happens to the energy animals consume
It is used to perform biosynthesis (growth and production of organic compounds), maintenance (processes that maintain the integrity of the body (maintaining body temp and ion pumps)), and generation of external work. It then leaves the body as heat or chemical energy
195
Explain how endotherms maintain their body temperatures, including both “insulation-managing tricks” within the TNZ and metabolically costly mechanisms above and below the TNZ
Above the TNZ:
Active evaporative cooling
- Sweating
- Panting
- Gular fluttering
Below the TNZ:
- Shivering
- Nonshivering thermogenesis → uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation from electron transport in mitochondria
- Redirecting blood flow away from its skin (uses minimal metabolic
energy)
196
__________ K+ leak channels would cause a relatively __________ resting membrane potential
fewer
depolarized
197
True or false: Voltage-gated does not affect resting membrane potential
True
198
Leak K+ channels stay open _________________ for action potential effects
at all times
199
___________ Na+ voltage gated channels = a __________ polarization of membrane voltage
less
smaller
200
_________ voltage gated K+ channels = more of a ______________ of membrane voltage for AP effects
more
hyperpolarization
201
Explain what is happening at each stage of the action potential (what ions are moving where, etc.) and the relationship between the ion movement and voltage change across the membrane
Increase in positive membrane potential is caused by the voltage gated Na+ channels opening → the inward Na+ current depolarizes the membrane voltage causing the membrane potential to be at its most positive state → The voltage gated Na+ channels begin to close and the outward flow of K+ drives the membrane potential back toward the equilibrium potential for K+ back
202
Explain how action potentials propagate in the absence of myelin, and in its presence (NOT just how the two are different, but literally how action potentials are regenerated down the axon in each separate case).
in the absence:
A threshold stimulus causes voltage gated sodium channels to open which causes an influx of sodium. This generates an action potential which also establishes a depolarizing current that flows to the next segment and brings it to threshold and the process repeats itself.
in the presence:
203
Explain why a depolarizing PSP is excitatory (an EPSP)
A synaptic potential that depolarizes the cell membrane is excitatory → because it increases the positive charge in the dendrite, slightly depolarizing the cell body and potentially the axon toward threshold
204
Explain why a hyperpolarizing PSP is inhibitory (an IPSP)
A synaptic potential that hyperpolarizes the cell membrane is inhibitory. → because it decreases the positive charge in the dendrite, slightly hyperpolarizing the cell body and potentially the axon away from threshold
205
Draw or interpret a general neural circuit (as in the cockroach figure)
Stimuli → Sensory Neurons → CNS interneurons → Motor neurons → effectors (movement)
206
What is the basic process of synthesis of a protein hormone?
207
What is the basic process of synthesis of a steroid hormone?
208
what is the general mode of action of a steroid hormone?
- to modify gene expression in target cell
- Peptides are faster than steroids
209
what is the general mode of action of a protein hormone?
to change events in the cytoplasm of target cell/change existing proteins
210
If glucose is high then insulin is _______
high
211
If glucose is high glucagons is ________
low
212
Describe the ways in which reptiles “improved” the amphibian breathing of their ancestors, and why they had to
Development of a bronchus → allows air to flow to all of the multiple chambers in the lung
The lungs are filled principally or exclusively by suction (aspiration) rather than by buccal pressure during ventilation → freed the buccal cavity from one of its ancient functions, allowing it to evolve in new directions without ventilatory constraints
Formation of a multiple-chambered lung
213
Describe the ways in which mammals “improved” the reptilian breathing of their ancestors, and why they had to
Created even more surface area of gas-exchange membrane per unit of lung volume which is beneficial since reptiles are know to be very active
Development of the diaphragm
214
Describe the costs and benefits of osmoregulation and osmoconformity
Osmoregulation:
- Costs more energy
- Animals cells are able to cope with the changing osmotic–ionic conditions that comes with living in different environments
- Osmoconformity:
- Costs less energy
- animals can't cope with the changing osmotic–ionic conditions in the interstitial fluid when living in different environments
