FINAL EXAM Flashcards
1
Q
the major function of the _____ _____ is to supply the body with oxygen and dispose of carbon dioxide
A
respiratory system
2
Q
what are the 4 things that must occur for respiration?
A
pulmonary ventilation
external respiration
transport of respiratory gases
internal inspiration
3
Q
what is pulmonary ventilation?
A
air must be moved into and out of the lungs so that the gases in the alveoli of the lungs are continuously replaced
4
Q
what is external respiration?
A
gas exchange must occur between the blood and the air at the lung alveoli
oxygen in the air sacs diffuses into the blood and CO2 in the blood diffuses into the air sacs
5
Q
what is the transport of respiratory gases?
A
oxygen and carbon dioxide must be transported between the lungs and the cells of the body
- blood is the transporting fluid
6
Q
what is internal respiration?
A
at the systemic capillaries, gases must be exchanged between the blood and tissue cells
7
Q
what is cellular respiration?
A
oxygen is used by the cells and CO2 is produced as a waste product by the chemical process that converts glucose to cellular energy (ATP)
8
Q
what organs are in the conducting zone?
what is the function?
A
respiratory passageways that carry air to the sites of gas exchange
- filter, humidify, and warm the incoming air
9
Q
what organs are in the respiratory zone?
A
actual site of gas exchange in the lungs
- respiratory bronchioles
- alveolar ducts
- and alveolar sacs
10
Q
what is the order of the respiratory passageway?
A
nostrils -> nasal cavity -> pharynx -> larynx -> trachea -> primary bronchus -> tertiary/secondary bronchi -> respiratory bronchi -> alveolar duct -> alveolar sac -> diffuse across alveolar/capillaru wall -> pulmonary capillaries
11
Q
the _____ is the only externally visible part of the respiratory system
A
nose
12
Q
5 functions of the nose:
A
- provide an airway for respiration
- moistens and warms incoming air
- filters inhaled air to cleanse it of foreign particles
- serves as a resonating for speech
- houses the olfactory (smell) receptors
13
Q
the skeletal framework of the _____ _____ consists of the frontal and nasal bones superiorly, the maxillary bones laterally, and flexible plates of hyaline cartilage inferiorly
A
external nose
14
Q
the _____ _____ lies in and posterior to the external nose
A
nasal cavity
15
Q
during breathing, air enters the nasal cavity by passing through the external _____, or nostrils
A
nares
16
Q
posteriorly, the nasal cavity is continuous with the nasal part of the pharynx through the _____ _____ _____, also called the choanae or internal nares
A
posterior nasal apertures
17
Q
the roof of the nasal cavity is formed by the ethmoid and sphenoid bones; its floor is formed by the _____, which separates the nasal cavity from the mouth inferiorly and keeps food out of airways
A
palate
18
Q
The _____ is lined with skin containing sebaceous and sweat glands and numerous hair follicles
A
vestibule
19
Q
what are the 2 types of mucous membrane that cover the nasal cavity?
A
(1) olfactory mucous - houses receptors for smell
(2) respiratory mucosa - lines vast majority of respiratory passageway
20
Q
what are the paranasal sinuses?
A
a ring of air-filled cavities
- help moisten inhaled air
- mucus drains into the nasal cavities and the suctioning effect caused by nose blowing helps drain them
21
Q
the _____ is a funnel-shaped passageway that connects the nasal cavity and the mouth superiorly to the larynx and esophagus inferiorly
A
pharynx
22
Q
3 divisions of the pharynx:
A
- nasopharynx
- oropharynx
- laryngopharynx
23
Q
the _____ lies directly posterior to the nasal cavity, inferior to the sphenoid bone and superior to the level of the soft palate
serves only as an air passageway
A
nasopharynx
24
Q
during swallowing, the soft palate and its pendulous _____ reflect superiorly, an action that closes off the nasopharynx and prevents food from entering the nasal cavity
A
uvula
25
high on the posterior nasopharyngeal wall is the midline _____ ____, a lymphoid organ that destroys pathogens entering the nasopharynx
pharyngeal tonsil
26
the _____ lies posterior to the oral cavity; its archduke entranceway, directly behind the mouth, is the faucet
- both swallowed food and air pass
oropharynx
27
describe the change in epithelium as you travel from the nasopharynx to the oropharynx
pseudostratified columnar -> stratified squamous
28
two kinds of tonsils are embedded in the mucosa of the oropharynx:
(1) pair palatine tonsil - lies in lateral wall of fauces
(2) single lingual tonsil - covers surface of tongue
29
like the oropharynx, the _____ serves as a common passageway for food and air and is lined with stratified squamous epithelium
laryngopharynx
30
the _____, or voice box, extends from the level of the fourth to the sixth cervical vertebrae
larynx
31
3 functions of the larynx:
- produce vocalization
- provide an open airway
- acting as a switching mechanism to route air and food into proper channels
32
what cartilage in the larynx forms the Adam's apple?
thyroid cartilage
- laryngeal prominence
33
inferior to the thyroid cartilage is the _____ _____, the only laryngeal cartilage that forms a complete ring
cricoid cartilage
34
three pairs of small cartilages lie superior to the cricoid cartilage in the posterior part of the larynx:
- arytenoid - most important - anchor vocal cords
- corniculate
- cuneiform
35
the leaf-shaped _____ is composed of elastic cartilage and is almost entirely covered by a mucosa
epiglottis
36
function of the epiglottis?
during swallowing, the entire larynx is pulled superiorly and the epiglottis tips inferiorly to cover and seal the laryngeal inlet
- keeps food out of lower respiratory tubes
37
vocal ligaments, composed largely of elastic fibers, form the core of a pair of mucosal folds called the _____ _____
vocal cords
38
the medial opening between the vocal folds through which air passes is called the _____ _____, and the vocal folds together with the rims compose the _____
rima glottidis
glottis
39
the _____ _____ (false vocal cords) define a slitlike cavity between themselves and the true vocal cords that enhances high-frequency sounds, functioning like the tweeter on stereo speakers
vestibular folds
40
what is Valsalva's maneuver?
during abdominal straining, such as occurs when one strain to defecate, the abdominal muscles contract and the glottis closes to prevent exhalation, raising intrathoracic and intra-abdominal pressure
41
the flexible _____, or windpipe, descends from the larynx through the neck and into the mediastinum; it ends by dividing into two main bronchi in the mid thorax
trachea
42
what cartilage is in the trachea?
hyaline
43
the open posterior parts of the cartilage ring, which abut the esophagus, contain smooth muscle fibers of the _____ and soft connective tissue
trachealis
44
a ridge on the internal aspect of the last tracheal cartilage, called the _____, marks the point where the trachea branches into the two main (primary) bronchi
carina
45
three layers of the trachea wall:
- mucosa
- submucosa
- adventitia
46
the _____, a mucous membrane, consists of an inner epithelium and a lamina proprietor. the epithelium is the same air filtering pseduostratified epithelium that occurs throughout most of the respiratory tract; its cilia continuously propels dust-laden sheets of mucus superiorly towards the pharynx
mucosa
47
the _____, another layer of connective tissue, contains glands of both serous and mucous cells, called seromucous glands, which help produce the sheets of mucus in the trachea
submucosa
48
the external layer of connective tissue in the trachea is the _____
adventitia
49
the right and left _____ _____, also called primary bronchi, are the largest conduits in the bronchial tree, a system of respiratory passes that branches extensively within the lungs
main bronchi
50
as they approach and enter the lungs, the main bronchi divide into secondary or _____ _____ - three on the right and two on the left - each supplies one lung lobe
lobar bronchi
51
the lobar bronchi branch into tertiary or _____ _____, which in turn divide repeatedly into smaller bronchi
segmental bronchi
52
the smallest tubes in the lungs
bronchioles
53
changes that occur as the conducting tubes become smaller:
- supportive connective tissue change - cartilage rings are replaced by irregular plates of cartilage as the main bronchi enter the lungs
- epithelium changes - pseudo stratified columnar -> simple columnar -> simple cuboidal
- smooth muscle becomes important - forms helical bands that wrap around the smaller bronchi and bronchioles and regulate the amount of air entering the alveoli
54
the respiratory zone consists of structures that contain air-exchange chambers called _____
alveoli
55
the first respiratory zone structures, which branch from the terminal bronchioles of the conducting zone, are the _____ _____
respiratory bronchioles
56
the respiratory bronchioles lead into ____ _____, straight ducts whose walls consists of almost entirely alveoli
alveolar ducts
57
the alveolar ducts then lead into terminal clusters of alveoli called ____ ____
alveolar sacs
58
the wall of each alveolus contains a single layer of squamous epithelium cells called _____ ______ _____ _____ surrounded by a delicate basal lamina
type I alveolar cells
59
together, the alveolar and capillary walls and their fused basal lamina form the _____ _____, where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the alveolus and the blood
respiratory membrane
60
______ diffuses from the alveolus into the blood, and _____ diffuses form the blood to enter the air-filled alveolus
oxygen
CO2
61
scattered among the type I squamous cells in the alveolar walls are cuboidal epithelial cells called _____ _____ ______ _____, which secrete a fluid that coats the internal alveolar surfaces
type II alveolar cells
62
the fluid secreted by type II alveolar cells contains a detergent-like substance called _____ that reduces the surface tension within the alveoli
surfactant
63
3 features of lung alveoli
- alveoli are surrounded by fine elastic fibers of the same type that surrounds structures along the entire respiratory tract
- adjacent alveoli interconnect via alveolar pores which allow air pressure to be equalized throughout the lung and provide alternative routes for air to reach alveoli whose broncho have collapsed because of disease
- internal alveolar surfaces provide a site for free movement of alveolar macrophages, which actually live in air space and remove the tiniest inhaled particles that were not trapped by mucous
64
the paired ____ and their pleural sacs occupy all the thoracic cavity lateral to the mediastinum
lungs
65
just deep to the clavicle is the _____, the rounded, superior tip of the lung
apex
66
the concave inferior surface of the lungs that rests on the diaphragm is the _____
base
67
on the medial surface of each lung is an indentation, the _____, through which blood vessels, bronchi, lymphatic vessels, and nerves enter and exit the lung
hilium
68
the apex, base, and hilium of the lungs attach the lung to the mediastinum and are called the ____ of the lung
root
69
the left lung is somewhat smaller than the right and has a _____ _____, a deviation in its anterior border that accommodates the heart
cardiac notch
70
several deep fissures divide the two lungs into different patterns of ____
lobes
71
two lobes of the left lung divided by the oblique fissure
superior and inferior lobes
72
3 divisions of the right lung divided by the oblique and horizontal fissures
superior middle and inferior
73
each lobe of the lung consists of a number of _____ _____ separated from one another by thin partitions of deep connective tissue
- each receive air form an individual segmental bronchus
bronchopulmonary segments
74
the _____ _____ deliver oxygen-poor blood to the lungs for oxygenation
pulmonary arteries
75
the smallest arteries feed into the ____ _____ ____ around the alveoli
pulmonary capillary networks
76
oxygenated blood is carried from the alveoli of the lungs to the heart by the _____ ______
pulmonary veins
77
around each lung is a flattened sac whose walls consist of a serous membrane called _____
pleura
78
the _____ _____ covers the internal surface of the thoracic wall, the superior surface of the diaphragm, and the lateral surfaces of the mediastinum
parietal pleura
79
the _____ _____ covers the external lung surface
visceral pleura
80
the space between the parietal and the visceral pleura is the _____ _____ which is filled with pleural fluid
pleaural cavity
81
function of pleural fluid?
allows lungs to glide without friction over the thoracic wall during breathing movements
holds parietal and visceral pleura together
82
the pleura divides the thoracic cavity into 3 separate compartments:
central mediastinum and two lateral pleural compartments each containing lung
83
sequence of events for inspiration (5)
(1) inspiratory muscles contract (diaphragm descends, rib cage rises)
(2) thoracic cavity and pleural cavity increase in volume
(3) lungs are stretched; lung volume increases
(4) air pressure in lungs decreases
(5) air (gases) flow into lungs
84
sequence of events for expiration (5)
(1) inspiratory muscles relax (diaphragm rises; rib cage descends because of recoil of costal cartilage)
(2) thoracic cavity and pleural cavity decrease in volume
(3) elastic lungs recoil passively; lung volume decreases
(4) air pressure in lungs rises
(5) air (gases) flows out of the lungs
85
two main groupings of the digestive system:
alimentary canal
accessory digestive organs
86
the _____ _____, also called the gastrointestinal tract, is the muscular digestive tube that winds through the body, extending from the mouth to the anus
alimentary canal
87
organs of the alimentary canal (7)
mouth
pharynx
esophagus
stomach
small intestine
large intestine
anus
88
what are the 6 accessory organs?
teeth
tongue
gallbladder
salivary glands
liver
pancreas
89
all divisions of the ventral body cavity contain slippery serous membranes, the most extensive if which is the _____ located in the abdominopelvic cavity
peritoneum
90
the ____ peritoneum covers the external surfaces of most digestive organs
visceral
91
the _____ paritoneum lines the body wall and is continuous with the visceral peritoneum
parietal
92
a ______ is a double layer of peritoneum - a sheet of 2 serous membranes fused together - that extends from the body wall to the digestive organs
mesentery
93
functions of the mesenteries
- hold organs in place
- store fat
- provide a route for circulatory vessels and nerves to reach organs in the peritoneal cavity
94
how does the greater omentum aid in limiting the spread of infections within the abdomen?
it is tremendously elongated and extends inferiorly to cover the transverse colon and coils of the small intestine
- can wrap around and enclose an inflamed organ
95
the _____ ligament binds the anterior aspect of the liver to the anterior abdominal wall and diaphragm
falciform
96
the _____ _____ runs from the liver to the lesser curvature of the stomach and beginning of the duodenum
lesser omentum
97
the transverse colon is held to the posterior abdominal wall by the _____ _____, a nearly horizontal sheet that is fused to the underside of the greater omentum
transverse mesocolon
98
digestive organs that keep their mesentery and remain surrounded by the peritoneal cavity
intraperitoneal
peritoneal organs
99
6 steps of the digestive process
(1) ingestion - taking in of food into the mouth
(2) propulsion - movement of food through the alimentary canal
(2b) peristalsis - alternate waves of contraction and relaxation of the musculature in the organ walls to aid in propulsion
(3) mechanical breakdown - physically prepares food for digestion by enzymes by breaking it into smaller pieces
(3b) segmentation - rhythmic local constrictions of the intestine
(4) digestion - series of steps in which complex food molecules are broken down to their chemical building blocks
(5) absorption - transport of digested end products from the lumen of the alimentary canal into the blood and lymphatic capillaries located in the wall of the canal
(6) defacation - elimination of indigestible substances from the body as feces
100
describe the mucosa of the digestive track in the alimentary canal
- inner most layer containing a lining epithelium, a lamina propria, and muscular mucosae
- helps absorb nutrients and secrete mucus
- lamina propria a loose areolar or reticular connective tissue whose capillaries nourish the lining and absorb digested nutrients
- the musculararis mucosa is a thin layer of smooth muscle that [rpduces local movements of the mucosa
101
describe the submucosa of the alimentary canal
- external to the mucosa, layer of connective tissue containing major blood and lymphatic vessels and nerve fibers
- elastic fibers allow the canal to return to its shape after food and material pass through it
102
describe the muscularis externa of the alimentary canal
- external to the submucosa, consisting of 2 layers of smooth muscle
- responsible for peristalsis and segmentation
103
describe the serosa of the alimentary canal
- the visceral peritoneum and outermost layer of the intraperitoneal organs
104
the smooth muscle and glands of the alimentary canal are controlled largely by the independent _____ _____ _____
enteric nervous system
105
function of the hard palate?
forms the rigid surface against which the tongue forces food during chewing
106
function of the soft palate?
mobile flap that rises to close off the nasopharynx during swallowing
107
1
enamel
108
2
dentin
109
3
pulp cavity
110
4
gingiva
111
5
periodontal ligament
112
6
bone
113
7
cementum
114
8
root canal
115
9
root
116
10
crown
117
each tooth has 2 main regions, the exposed _____ and the _____ in the socket
crown
roots
118
the surface of the crown, which bears the force of chewing, is covered by a layer of ____, the hardest substance in the body
enamel
119
_____ underlies the enamel cap and forms the bulk of the tooth
dentin
120
the _____ _____, in the center of the tooth, is filled with dental pulp, a loose connective tissue containing the tooth's hard tissue and provides for tooth sensation
pulp cavity
121
the part of the pulp cavity in the root is the _____ _____
root canal
122
the external surface of the tooth is covered by a calcified connective tissue called _____
cement
123
compare enamel and dentin
enamel
- on the surface of the crown
- lacks cells and vessels
- mass from calcium crystals
dentin
- under enamel and forms bulk of tooth
- bonelike tissue with mineral and collagen components
- harder than bone and lacks internal blood vessels
124
what is the function of saliva?
-moistens the mouth
-dissolves food chemicals so they can be tastes
-wet food
-bind food together into a bolus
-its enzymes begin digestion of carbohydrates and fats
-neutalizes acids produced by oral bacteria that initiate tooth decay
-contains bactericidal enzymes, antiviral substances, antibodies, and a cyanide compound
125
3 main salivary glands:
parotid
submandibular
sublingual
126
describe the parotid gland
a salivary gland
has a parotid duct that penetrates the muscle of the cheek and opens the mouth
facial expression
127
describe the submandibular gland
a compound tubocinar slalivary gland
its duct opens in the floor of the mouth to the tongue
128
describe the sublingual gland
a salivary gland that lies on the floor of the oral cavity inferior to the tongue
129
what type of epithelium comprosises the oral cavity, pharynx and esophagus?
stratified squamous
130
food in the stomach is churned into a paste called _____
chyme
131
the stomach starts the breakdown of food proteins by secreting ____, a protein-digesting enzyme that can function only under acidic conditions
pepsin
132
what are the 4 regions of the stomach?
cardia
fundus
body
pylorus
133
the ____ region of the stomach is a ring-shaped zone encircling the cardiac office at the junction with the esophagus
cardia
134
the ____ region of the stomach is the stomach's dome, tucked under the diaphragm
fundus
135
the mid portion of the stomach, the _____, ends at the funnel-shaped pyloric part
body
136
the ____ region of the stomach contains the pyloric sphincter which controls the entry of chyme into the intestine
pylorus
137
gastric glands contain 3 types of secretory cells:
mucous neck
pariteal
chief
138
what do mucous neck cells produce?
a different type of mucus from that secreted by the surface mucus cells
139
what do parietal (oxyntic) cells produce?
the stomachs hydrochloric acid by pumping hydrogen and chloride ions into the lumen of the gland
140
what do chief (zymogenic) cells produce?
the enzymatic protein pepsinogen, which is activated to pepsin when it encounters acid in the apical region of the gland
141
what regions of the stomach do gastric glands contain parietal and chief cells?
parietal: fundus and body
chief: fundus
142
what are the three regions of the small intestine?
duodenum
jejunum
ileum
143
function of the duodenum?
region of small intestine
- receives digestive enzymes from the pancreas and ill from the gallbladder
144
function of mouth and what type of organ?
alimentary
chews food and mixes it with saliva
145
function of salivary glands and what type of organ?
accessory
produces saliva, which contains a starch-digesting enzyme called salivary amylase
146
function of pharynx and type of organ?
alimentary
swallows the chewed food mixed with saliva called bolus
147
function of esophagus and type of organ?
alimentary
moves the bolus to the stomach
148
function of the stomach and type of organ?
alimentary
mixes and churns food with gastric juice that contain acid and a protein-digesting enzyme called pepsin creating chyme
149
function of liver and type of organ?
accessory
makes bile which aids in the digestion and absorption of fat
150
function of pancreas and type of organ?
accessory
releases bicarbonate to neutralize intestinal contents; produces enzymes that digest carbohydrates, protein, and fat
151
function of gallbladder and type of organ?
accessory
stores bile and releases it into the small intestine when needed
152
function of small intestine and type of organ?
alimentary
digests food and absorbs nutrients into blood or lymph
153
function of large intestine and type of organ?
alimentary
absorbs water and some vitamins and minerals: home to intestinal bacteria; passes waste material
154
function of anus and type of organ?
alimentary
opens to allow waste to leave the body
155
the medial surface of the kidneys is concave and has a vertical cleft called the renal ____, where vessels, ureters, and nerves enter and leave the kidney
hilum
156
function of the kidneys:
-dispose of waste and excess ions
-regulate volume and chemical makeup of the blood by maintaining the proper balance of water and salts of acids and bases
157
a thin, tough layer of dense connective tissue called the _____ _____ adheres directly to the kidneys surface, maintaining its shape and forming a barrier that can inhibit the spread of infection from the surrounding regions
fibrous capsule
158
two distinct regions of kidney tissue:
cortex and medulla
159
deep to the renal cortex is the renal ____, which consists of cone-shaped masses called renal pyramids
medulla
160
the renal sinus is actually a "filled space" in that it contains the renal vessels and nerves, come fat, and the urine-carrying tubes called the _____ _____ and _____
renal pelvis
calices
161
the _____ ____ is a flat, funnel-shaped tube, and is simply the expanded superior part of the ureter
renal pelvis
162
branching extensions of the renal pelvis form two or three _____ _____ each of which divide to form several minor calicos, cup shaped tubes that enclose the paella of the pyramids
major calices
163
function of the renal pelvis and calices?
the calices collect urine draining from the papillae and empty it into the renal pelvis
the urine then flows through the renal pelvis and into the ureter, which transports it to the bladder for storage
164
1 whole structure
renal corpuscle
165
2
glomerular capsule
166
3
glomerulus
167
4
proximal convoluted tubule
168
5
distal convoluted tubule
169
6
cortex
170
7
medulla
171
8
thick limb
172
9
ascending limb
173
10 whole structure
nephron loop
174
11
descending limb
175
12
ascending limb
176
13
collecting duct
177
each nephron is composed of a _____ _____ and a _____ ____
renal corpuscle
renal tubule
178
the first part of the nephron where filtration occurs is the _____ _____
renal corpuscle
179
the renal corpuscle consists of a tuft of capillaries called a _____ surrounded by a cup-shaped hollow _____ _____
glomerulus
glomerular capsule
180
the external _____ _____ of the glomerular capsule is a simple squamous epithelium
parietal layer
181
the glomerular capsule's visceral layer clings to the glomerulus and consists of unusual, branching epithelial cells called _____
podocytes
182
three layers of the filtration membrane:
(1) the fenestrated endothelium of the capillary
(2) the filtration slits between the foot process of the podocytes, each which covered by a thin slit diaphragm
(3) an intervening basement membrane consisting of the fused basal laminae of the endothelium and the podocyte epithelium
183
after forming in the renal corpuscle, the filtrate proceeds into the long tubular section of the nephron, which begins as the elaborately coiled _____ _____ _____, makes a hairpin loop called the _____ _____ (loop of Henle), winds and turns again as the _____ _____ _____, and ends by joining a _____ _____
proximal convoluted tubule
nephron loop
distal convoluted tubule
collecting duct
184
function of the proximal convoluted tubule?
most active in resorption and secretion
- microvilli increase SA of the cuboidal epithelial cells, maximizing the capacity for resorbing water, ions, and solutes
- many mitochondria for energy for resorption
185
epithelium of the nephron loop?
walls containing simple squamous
186
function of the distal convoluted tubule?
simple cuboidal specialized for secretion and aborpion of ions
- less active than proximal because less microvilli
187
function of collecting duct?
receives urine from several nephrons and runs straight through the cortex deep into the medulla
forms with the papillary ducts that empty into the minor calices
- simple cuboidal
- conserve body fluids
188
explain the steps of how nephrons work
(1) blood from the heart travels to the renal artery, then to an arteriole leading into the kidney, where water and some solutes will be filtered from it. most of the filtrate will return to the general circulation
(2) filtration - at the start of the nephron, blood enters glomerular capillaries. water and small solutes are filtered into Bowman's capsule
(3) tubular reaborption - water and many solutes cross the proximal tubule wall and enter interstitial fluid of the kidney cortex. membrane transport proteins move most of the solutes across the wall. these materials then enter the peritubular capillaries
(4) after its hairpin turn, the wall of the loop of Henle is impermeable to water. but its cells activity pump out sodium and chloride ions out of the loop. pumping makes the interstitial fluid saltier. as a result, even more water is drawn out of the collecting ducts that also run through the medulla
(5) tubular secretion - cells of the nephron tubular wall regions secrete excess H+ and a few other solutes into the fluid inside the nephron's lumen
(6) hormonal action adjusts the urine concentration. ADH promotes water reabsorption, so the urine is concentrated. when controls inhibit ADH secretion, urine is dilute. aldosterone promotes sodium reaboption by stimulating sodium pumps. because more sodium is reabsorbed, the urine has little sodium. when controls inhibit secretion, more sodium is secreted in the urine.
(7) excretion - water and solutes that are not reabsorbed or that were secreted into the tubule flow through the collecting duct to the renal pelvis, then are eliminated from the body by way of the urinary tract
189
two classes of nephrons:
cortical - 85% of nephrons, located almost entirely in cortex with loops dipping only a small amount into the medulla
juxtamedullary - renal corpuscles lie near the cortex-medulla junction - contribute to kidneys ability to concentrate urine
190
the _____ are slender tubes that carry urine from the kidney's to the bladder
ureters
191
3 layers of ureters:
mucosa - transitional epithelium that stretches when the ureters fill with urine and a lamina propria composed of stretchy, fibroelastic connective tissue containing rare patches of lymphoid tissue
muscularis - inner longitudinal layer and an outer circular layer of smooth muscle
adventitia - typical connective tissue
192
the _____ _____, a collapsible, muscular sac that stores and expels urine, lies inferior to the peritoneal cavity on the pelvic floor
urinary bladder
193
at the bladders anterior angle is a fibrous band called the _____, the closed remnant of an embryonic tube called the allantois
urachus
194
in the interior of the bladder, openings for both ureters and the urethra define a triangular region on the posterior wall called the _____
trigone
195
3 layers of the bladder wall:
- mucosa with distensible transitional epithelium and a lamina propria forms the inner lining of the bladder
- a thick muscular layer called the detrusor forms the middle layer
- adventitia
196
the _____ is a thin-walled tube that drains urine from the bladder and conveys it out of the body
ureter
197
at the bladder-urethra junction, a thickening of the detrusor forms the _____ _____ _____
internal urethral sphincter
198
a second sphincter, the _____ _____ _____ surrounds the urethra within the sheet of muscle called the urogenital diagraphm
external urethral sphincter
199
difference in male and female urethra
males: passes through prostate and into the penis
females: much shorter, runs from bladder to open in front of vagina
200
what are the primary sex organs in the male and female?
male: testes
female: ovaries
201
what are the gametes in males and females?
males: sperm
females: ovum (egg)
202
why are testes located in the scrotum, outside of the body wall?
the testes make sperm and in order to do this the temperature of the testes needs to be cooler than the inside of the body
203
the _____ _____, a layer of smooth muscle in the superficial fascia is responsible for wrinkling the scrotal skin
dartos muscle
204
the _____ _____, bands of skeletal muscle that extend inferiorly from the internal oblique muscles of the trunk, are responsible for elevating the testes
cremaster muscles
205
trace the pathway of sperm moving from testes to ejaculation
testes -> semifinerous tubules -> rete testis -> epididymis -> ductus deferens joins the seminal glands to form the -> ejaculatory duct -> prostate gland circles the first part of the -> urethra
206
function of the bulb-urethral glands?
produce mucus, some of which enters the spongy urethra when a man becomes sexually excited prior to ejaculation
- neutralizes the traces of acidic urine in the urethra and lubricates the urethra to smooth the passages of semen during ejaculation
207
the penis consists of an attached ____ and a free ____ that ends in an enlarged tip called the _____ ____
root
body
glans penis
208
the skin covering the penis is loose and extends distally around the glans to form a cuff called the _____ or _____
prepuce
foreskin
209
internally, the penis contains the spongy urethra and 3 long cylindrical bodies of erectile tissue called ____ _____
erectile bodies
210
describe the structure of the erectile bodies
a thick tube covered by a sheath of dense connective tissue and filled with a network of partitions that consist of smooth muscle and connective tissue
211
the mid ventral erectile body surrounding the spongy urethra, the _____ _____, is enlarged distally where it forms the glans penis and proximally where it forms a part of the root called the bulb of the penis
corpus spongiosum
212
the paired, dorsal erectile bodies, the _____ _____, make up most of the mass of the penis
corpora cavernosa
213
explain the mechanism of erection
results from engorgment of the erectile bodies with blood
- during sexual stimulation, parasympathetic innervation dilates the arteries supplying the erectile bodies, increasing the flow of blood to the vascular spaces within
- the smooth muscle in the partitions in these bodies relax, allowing the bodies to expand as the blood enters
- as the erectile bodies begin to swell, they press on the small veins that normally drain them, slowing venous drainage and maintaining engorgement
- the arrangement of collagen fibers in the dense connective tissue outside the erectile bodies strengthen the penis during erection
214
ejaculation is under the control of:
sympathetic nervous system
215
the _____ _____ houses the developing gametes, which are called oocytes while in the ovary
ovarian cortex
216
all oocytes occur within sac-like multicellular structures called _____, which enlarge substantially as they mature
follicles
217
the deep _____ _____ is a loose connective tissue containing the largest blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels of the ovary; these vessels enter the ovary through the hilum
ovarian medulla
218
what is the role of the infundibulum in the oviduct?
the lateral region of the uterine tube, an open funnel opens into the peritoneal cavity
219
what are oviducts?
fallopian tubes
receive the ovulated oocyte and are site for fertilization
220
what is the role of the fimbriae in the oviduct?
the margin of the infundibulum is surrounded by ciliated, fingerlike projections that drape over the ovary
221
what is the role of the ampulla in the oviduct?
medial to the infundibulum is the expanded ampulla, which forms half of the length of the uterine tube and is the site where fertilization usually occurs
222
what is the role of the isthmus in the oviduct?
the medial third of the uterine tube
223
how does the infundibulum capture a released oocyte?
bends to cover the ovary while the fimbriae stiffen and sweep the ovarian surface; then the beating cilia on the frimbriae generate currents in the peritoneal fluid that carry the oocyte into the uterine tube
224
what is an ectopic pregnancy?
where do most occur?
the implantation of the embryo outside the uterus
uterine tube
225
where is the uterus located in the body?
lies in the pelvic cavity, anterior to the rectum and posterosuperior to the bladder
226
despite the presence of ligaments, what provides the primary support for the uterus to prevent prolapse?
the cervix contains a large amount of collagen fibers that form a tough, fibrous ring that keeps the uterus closed and the fetus within it during a pregnancy
227
the rounded region superior to the entrance of the uterine tubes is the _____, and the slightly narrowed region inferior to the body is the _____
fundus
isthmus
228
the narrow neck of the uterus is the _____, the inferior tip which projects into the vagina
cervix
229
the major portion of the uterus is called the _____
body
230
what are the 3 layers of the uterine wall?
(1) perimetrium
(2) myometrium - bulky middle layer consisting of interlacing bundles of smooth muscle that contract during childbirth to expel the baby from the mother's body
(3) endometrium - the mucosal lining of the uterine cavity
231
explain the structure of the vagina in terms of function
mucosa consists of a lamina propria which contains elastic fibers that help the vagina return to its original shape after expanding and stratified squamous that can withstand friction of intercourse and resist bacterial infection
232
the female reproductive structure that lie external to the vagina are the _____ _____
external genitalia
233
the _____ _____ is a fatty, rounded pad overlying the pubic symphysis
mons pubis
234
extending posteriorly from the mons are two long, hair-covered, fatty skin folds, the _____ ____, which are the female counterpart of the scrotum
labia majora
235
relate labia major of the female and the scrotum of a male in terms of development
they derive from the same embryonic structure
236
the labia majora encloses two thin, hairless folds of skin called the _____ _____, which enclose a recess called the vestibule housing the external openings of the urethra and vagina
labia minora
237
just anterior to the vestibule is the _____, a protruding structure composed largely of erectile tissue that is sensitive to touch and sweets with blood during sexual stimulation
clitoris
238
the clitoris is hooded by a fold of skin, the _____ ______ ______ _____, formed by the anterior junction of the two labia minora.
prepuce of the clitoris
239
as in the penis, the body of the clitoris contains paired _____ _____, which continue posteriorly into crura that extend along the bony pubic arch
corpora cavernosa
240
the female _____ is a diamond-shaped region between the public arch anteriorly, the coccyx posteriorly, and the ischial tuberosityies laterally
perineum
