Final exam

Question 1

1. Age, Different types of age (example psychological age etc.)

Answer 1

age refers to the passage of time that marks an individual’s development and growth, both biologically and socially

Question 2

chronological age

Answer 2

It is the number of years that have passed since birth

Question 3

Biological Age
e.1

Answer 3

measure of a person’s physical condition as
compared to others. Ex. She runs like an 18-year-old. He has the memory of a 90-year-old

Question 4

Psychological Age
e.1

Answer 4

measure of an individual’s ability to deal
effectively with the environment as compared to others.
 Ex. Person that buys designer jeans or skinny jeans at 85 is said to
be acting like a teenager.
 Being irresponsible at 40
 Or her psychological age is below her chronological age

Question 5

SOCIAL AGE
e.1

Answer 5

measure of the number of roles an individual has taken on at specific points in his or her life.
 Ex. Woman having her 1st child at 45 is taking on a social role at
least a decade younger.

Question 6

Functional Age
e.1

Answer 6

Measure of how well an individual is functioning in various aspects of adulthood considering biological age, chronological age, psychological age, social age as a package

Question 7

Ecological systems approach

Answer 7

We must consider the developing person in the context of multiple environments
These ideas were introduced by Urie Bronfenbrenner (psychologist in
1979)

Question 8

Bronfenbrenner and the 5 systems
e.3

Answer 8

The ecological systems theory holds
that we encounter different environments throughout our lifespan that may influence our behavior in varying degrees. These systems include the micro system, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the
macro system, and the chronosystem.

 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory focuses on the quality
and context of the child’s environment. He states that as a child develops, the interaction within these environments becomes more complex. This complexity can arise as the child’s physical and
cognitive structures grow and mature.

 Also helps us understand why we may behave differently when we
compare our behavior in the presence of our family and our behavior when we are in school or at work.

Question 9

Microsystem
e.3

Answer 9

examples are Family, Peers, Religious Setting, Classroom. the direct environment we have in our lives. Your family,
friends, classmates, teachers, neighbors and other people who have
a direct contact with you are included in your micro system.

Question 10

Mesosystem
e.3

Answer 10

are the relationships between your microsystems.
Example relationships between school and family. Do your parents get along with your teachers?

Question 11

Exosystem
e.3

Answer 11

examples are School, Community, Health agencies, Mass media.
 The exosystem is the link between 2 settings: one is an immediate setting, and the other is one where the person doesn’t play an active role. One way to understand this is for example maybe it’s the relationship between the parents job
and the child’s school. They work long hours. Although the child is not directly
involved in the parents workplace it will have an affect on whether the parents
are able to volunteer in the child’s school.

Question 12

Macrosystem
e.3

Answer 12

examples are Nationality, Culture, Society, economics and political systems. The macrosystem setting involves the actual culture of an individual. The cultural contexts involve the socioeconomic status of the person and/or his family,
his ethnicity or race and living in a still developing or a third world country.
 It can also be defined as the larger cultural and social context

Question 13

Chronosystem
e.3

Answer 13

Has to do with the role of time. When events occur in a person’s life

Example: becoming a parent at age 16 vs. becoming a parent at age 30

Question 14

Four stages of cognitive development

Answer 14

The four stages of cognitive development were proposed by Jean Piaget, as part of his theory of how children’s thinking evolves over time. Each stage represents a shift in how individuals understand and interact with the world

Question 15

sensorimotor stage (Birth to ~2 years)
E.4

Answer 15

last from birth to 2 years of age
 Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motor actions
 infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform on it
 At the end of this stage infants realize they have an existence independent from the external world

simpler
1. Sensorimotor Stage
Age: Birth to 2 years
Key Features:
Infants explore the world through their senses (sight, touch, taste, etc.) and motor actions.
Object Permanence develops: the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight.

Example: A baby searches for a toy that has been hidden under a blanket.

Question 16

Substage 1

Answer 16

simple reflexes (birth to one month) -cognition is limited to inherited reflex patterns – Sucking of objects in the mouth, following moving or interesting objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand when an object makes contact with the palm (palmar reflex). Over the first six weeks of life, these reflexes begin to become voluntary actions; for example, the palmar
reflex becomes intentional grasping

Question 17

Substage 2

Answer 17

First habits and primary circular reactions phase (1 to 4 months) Coordination of sensation and two types of schemes: habits (reflex) and primary circular reactions (reproduction of an event that initially occurred by chance) Main focus is still on the infant’s body.” As an example of this type of reaction, an infant might repeat the motion of passing their hand before
their face”

Question 18

Substage 3

Answer 18

Secondary circular reactions phase(4-8 months) Development of habits. “Infants become more object-oriented,
moving beyond self-preoccupation; repeat actions that bring interesting or pleasurable results.” - intentional grasping for a desired object, infants will intentionally grasp the air in the direction of a desired object. - Secondary circular reactions, or the repetition of an
action involving an external object begin; for example, moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly.

Question 19

Substage 4

Answer 19

Coordination of secondary circular reactions stage 8–12 months- Coordination of vision and touch–hand-eye coordination; - This stage is associated primarily with the development of logic.
- Also, this stage marks the beginning of goal orientation, the deliberate planning of steps to meet an objective.

Question 20

Substage 5

Answer 20

Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity 12–18 months
-Infants become intrigued by the many properties of objects and by the many things they can make happen to
objects: they experiment with new behavior. Piaget describes the
child at this juncture as the “young scientist,” conducting pseudo
experiments to discover new methods of meeting challenges.

Question 21

Substage 6

Answer 21

Mental Combinations 18–24 months “Infants develop the ability to use primitive symbols and form enduring mental
representations.” This stage is associated primarily with the beginnings of insight, or true creativity. This marks the passage
into the preoperational stage.

Question 22

Preoperational stage
(2-7 years old)
E.4

Answer 22

the second of four stages of cognitive development - During this stage, the child learns to use and to represent objects by images, words, and drawings - The
child is able to form stable concepts as well as mental reasoning and magical beliefs - Thinking is still egocentric: The child has
difficulty taking the viewpoint of others.

Simple

2. Preoperational Stage
   Age: 2 to 7 years
   Key Features:
   Development of symbolic thinking (using words and images to represent objects).
   Egocentrism: Difficulty understanding perspectives other than their own.
   Lack of understanding of conservation (e.g., the amount of liquid remains the same even when poured into a different container).
   Example: A child thinks a taller glass has more water than a shorter one, even if the volumes are equal.

Question 23

Concrete operational stage
(7-11 years)
E.4

Answer 23

the third of four major changes - appropriate use of logic
- ability to sort objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other characteristic
– thought becomes less egocentric
–they develop Conservation understanding that quantity, length or number of items is
unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object or items. For example, the child of age 7-11 master’s this ability, to logically determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size

simple

3. Concrete Operational Stage
   Age: 7 to 11 years
   Key Features:
   Logical thinking develops but is limited to concrete, tangible objects and events.
   Understanding of conservation, reversibility, and classification improves.
   Example: A child can sort objects by size or shape and solve simple mathematical problems.

Question 24

Formal operational stage
(11-16 years)
E.4

Answer 24

fourth and final of the
periods of cognitive development in Piaget’s theory
–children are able to make and test hypotheses
–Children can think abstractly
reason logically and draw conclusions from the information available, as well as apply all these processes to hypothetical
situations
- Adolescents begin to think more as a scientist thinks, devising plans to solve problems and systematically testing
solutions
- During this stage the adolescent is able to understand such things as love, “shades of gray”, logical proofs and values

simple

4. Formal Operational Stage
   Age: 11 years-16
   Key Features:
   Ability to think abstractly, reason logically, and solve hypothetical problems.
   Development of systematic and scientific thinking.
   Example: A teenager can think about complex moral issues or plan a scientific experiment.

Question 25

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) E.5

Answer 25

-Piaget was a stage theorist -He believed cognition developed in a series of stages -Thinking at any particular stage being qualitatively different from what preceded it or which will follow it -He divided cognitive development into 4 major stages (or periods) -The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages of cognitive development

Question 26

Stability E.6

Answer 26

=important parts of ourselves that make up a consistent core.  Constant set of attributes that make us the individuals we are throughout our lifespan.  Ex. Love of books  Love of music  Sports

Question 27

Sources of stability e.6

Answer 27

some traits or behaviors show traces of stability instead of change. Little or no change for significant periods of time.

Question 28

note 15 Stability E.6

Answer 28

term in developmental psychology which refers to the degree to which a person maintains the same rank order overtime in comparison to their peers for a particular characteristic.  For example, does the 3-year-old with a high IQ maintain that high IQ at age 8,16,18 and 21

Question 29

Plasticity E.6

Answer 29

The extent to which behavior can be changed  The extent to which children can be influenced by experience  The extent to which individuals can be shaped by the environment

Question 30

Stability vs. Plasticity

Answer 30

Stability refers to traits or behaviors that remain consistent over time, often linked to genetics or early development (e.g., a shy child remaining shy as an adult). Plasticity refers to the capacity for change in response to experiences, learning, or environment (e.g., improving skills through training). Key Difference: Stability emphasizes continuity, while plasticity highlights adaptability and growth potential. Both work together, as some traits are stable, while others can change with effort or circumstances.

Question 31

note 11. Developmental psychology E.7

Answer 31

Field of study that deals with behavior, thoughts, and emotions of individuals as they go through various parts of the lifespan. Also includes child development, adolescent development and adult development

Question 32

Empirical research E.8

Answer 32

scientific studies of measurable and observable events. They are measured and evaluated objectively

Question 33

Commonalities E.9

Answer 33

are aspects of life we can all relate to.  Typical stages of development like 1st day of school for a child.  It is a universal event in our culture

Question 34

Atypical experiences e.10

Answer 34

are experiences that are unique to the individual:  Example:  Teen pregnancy  Raising kids then going back to school other people can experience but not everyone does

Question 35

Outer vs. Inner changes e.11

Answer 35

Outer Changes: Visible, physical changes (e.g., height, wrinkles). Inner Changes: Internal, psychological, or emotional changes (e.g., beliefs, personality growth). Key Difference: Outer = physical; Inner = mental/emotional.

Question 36

Outer changes e.11

Answer 36

Changes that are visible and apparent  Example: Losing or gaining weight etc.

Question 37

Inner changes e.11

Answer 37

Those changes not apparent to the casual observer Example: Growing wisdom  Falling in love

Question 38

inner and outer changes e.11

Answer 38

Inner and outer changes are not independent from one another.  Example: Outer Changes can affect how we feel about ourselves or vice versa. outer change-pimples inner change-affect self estem

Question 39

What are sources of change? e.12

Answer 39

-Types of influences that result in change  1) Normative age graded influences  2) Normative history graded influences  3) Non normative life events

Question 40

Normative age graded influences E.12

Answer 40

These are linked by experiences by most people of any age of every generation. 3 typical types of age graded influences.  A)Biology –common changes that occur at common times (represented by the idea of the biological clock ex. Growth spurts, Wrinkles etc)  B)Shared experiences- We can picture this as a social clock that defines the normal or usual sequence of life experiences -the social clock has an affect on our self esteem or self worth How So? Ex. Middle age man living with his parents. American movies mock this idea. (Think of the movie “step brothers”)

Question 41

Normative history graded influences E.12

Answer 41

It is experiences that result from historical events or conditions. Also shapes development. -the large social environments where development takes place is known as cultures and cultures vary in ways that influence the life pattern.  Example: Expected age of marriage, child bearing and typical number of children, # wives, roles of men and women, religion, laws, class structures

Question 42

Non normative life events e.12

Answer 42

Aspects that influence your life that are unique to you not shared with many others.  What might be some examples?  One’s spouse dies at a young age  Inheriting enough money to retire at 40  Starting your own business at 65 years of age  The event itself and the timing of the event make it a non normative life event

Question 43

Cohort e.13

Answer 43

refers to a group of people who share a common historical experience at the same stage of life.  (Generation refers to a 20 year span. Cohort refers to a shorter period of time. Generation also refers to a larger geographic area but cohort could be 1 country or one region)  Ex. Group of children that grew up in the great depression period of the 1930’s. the hardship children faced and resulting issues were carried over into adulthood as a result. -Also, two cohorts can experience the same historical event differently because of their ages. The difference between being 5 years old and 10 years old for example. The ten year old will be much more aware.

Question 44

Psychiatrist George Valliant (2002) e.14

Answer 44

Study showed how upbringing had an effect on people’s personality. These persisted throughout the lifespan.  Parents that provided basic trust to their children instill a sense of self worth etc. It had a positive effect on the children’s personality. SOURCES OF STABILITy

Question 45

Interactionist view e.15

Answer 45

how ones genes interact w/ the environment.  Ex. Boy with a genetic make up that promotes avoiding risk will grow up with a certain pattern of interactions with others. -may be viewed as stable and sensible by teachers. May go into accounting. --May enjoy low risk activities --May marry someone that supports his lifestyle --may work the same job until retirement etc.

Question 46

Lifespan Developmental Psychology Approach E.16 Paul Baltes

Answer 46

Guiding perspective to understanding childhood through adult development. It is an idea that development is lifelong, multidimensional, and contextual and has multiple causes.

Question 47

Life Span Development-human development E.16

Answer 47

is a life long process. No single age is more important than another. At every age various developmental processes are at work (according to Paul Baltes other Psychologists may disagree)

Question 48

Multidirectionality e.16

Answer 48

We develop in different directions and at different rates. Developmental processes can increase or decrease. At one time of life we can change in some areas but remain stable in others. Ex. Some abilities can increase or decrease because of age  We can show independence by finishing college but dependence by living at home with our parents.

Question 49

development as gain and loss e.16

Answer 49

development is a combination of gains and losses at every age and we need to anticipate and adapt to both

Question 50

Plasticity e.16

Answer 50

Many aspects of development can be modified. Not much is set in stone but there can be limits.  Ex. Former alcoholic teenager become a responsible and sober adult.

Question 51

Historical embeddedness e.16

Answer 51

development is influenced by historical and cultural conditions  Ex. Those that grew up during the great depression have different attitudes about money and work.

Question 52

Contextualism e.16

Answer 52

development depends on the interaction of normative age graded, normative history graded and non-normative influences.  Each of us is an individual because of the interaction of influences we share with others in general, those we share because of the times we live in and those that are unique to us.

Question 53

Multidisciplinary e.16

Answer 53

The study of human development across the lifespan does not belong to psychology alone. It is the territory of many other disciplines and benefit from the contributions of all.  Ex. Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, economics, public health, nursing, Education etc. each brings a valuable viewpoint to the field of development.

Question 54

Researcher Richard Lerner E.17

Answer 54

put together the Developmental Systems Approach (aka Developmental Contextual Model) -Views Development as a result of Bidirectional interaction between all levels of biological and experiential values. We are born with certain biological abilities and limits, which are influenced in the context that one finds themselves in

Question 55

Stages E.18

Answer 55

periods of time in which functioning is different from functioning at other periods. Ex. “terrible twos" A period of time where a child may display a certain type of thought or behavior  Not permanent but a period of transition as a child makes his way into adulthood.

Question 56

Additional Attributes of Stages E.18

Answer 56

Stages entail qualitative differences Example: Child playing with a toy (or real) Phone  14 months old: Banging the phone. Seeing how the phone works. How phone responds back  Exploring the toy  20 months old: Later on the same toy is played with in another way  They begin to understand that it represents something in the adult world.  They start talking gibberish or simple words into the phone  Start playing phone games with others.  The difference appears to be qualitative.  The older child does not necessarily do more with the toy, but the idea is that the entire nature of the play is different

Question 57

Qualitative vs. Quantitative differences E.19

Answer 57

Qualitative Differences: Changes in the kind or type of behavior or abilities, involving a fundamental transformation (e.g., crawling to walking). Quantitative Differences: Changes in amount, frequency, or degree, involving gradual increases (e.g., growing taller or learning more words). Key Difference: Qualitative = type of change; Quantitative = amount of change.

Question 58

note 14 Stage (discontinuity theorists) E.20

Answer 58

believe that development proceeds in a step like fashion  qualitative changes from one stage to the next occurring abruptly.

Question 59

Nonstage (or continuity theorists) E.20

Answer 59

Propose that development proceeds in a continuous fashion with quantitative changes occurring gradually overtime.

Question 60

Stage (discontinuity theorists) vs. Nonstage (or continuity theorists) E.20

Answer 60

Stage (Discontinuity Theorists): Development happens in distinct, qualitative stages, with clear shifts in abilities or behaviors (e.g., Piaget's stages of cognitive development). Nonstage (Continuity Theorists): Development is a gradual, continuous process, with small, quantitative changes over time (e.g., gradual improvement in vocabulary). Key Difference: Stages involve abrupt changes; continuity involves smooth, incremental growth.

Question 61

Developmental invariance E.21

Answer 61

 States that cognitive skill does not improve steadily throughout childhood  reaches adult competence early in life and remains stable through the lifespan.

Question 62

 Example of developmental invariance E.21

Answer 62

 Sensory capabilities such as knowledge of permanence of objects also called object permanence. This means that objects have a permanent existence. Children have developed an internal representation of objects even when they are not present. Fully developed by 18 months of age.  Another Idea within developmental invariance is that abilities can actually decline throughout childhood and into adulthood.  What might be some examples?  Infants can discriminate between a wide variety or range of sounds and this seems to decline by the teen years  We also know the speed at which people can process information shows a steady decline beginning in middle age  So, some aspects of development decline as we get older

Question 63

Stage theorists also believe e.21

Answer 63

Children’s thinking within a stage is relatively even (homogeneous) and similar cognitive functioning across a wide range of tasks. Stage related functions are well integrated (children solving one problem maybe similar to how they solve other problems at a given age.)  Cognition is relatively uniform (homogeneous) at a certain ag

Question 64

Tape recorder Model of development (Jerome Kagen 1976) E.22

Answer 64

-Every experience is recorded forever without being able to rewrite or erase something once it has happened (recorded) Examples: Children raised in environments that lacked proper stimulation or infants that received little social or physical stimulation showed signs of retardation  The effects increased the longer these children were in non-stimulating environments  Problems continued for the children once they left such environment  We see long term consequences of early experiences

Question 65

Strategies E.23

Answer 65

goal directed and deliberately implemented mental operations used to facilitate task performance  Deliberate goal directed mental operations aimed at solving a problem  Example an 18 months old toddler stacking boxes one on the other so they can reach a shelf in the kitchen that may have cookies on it

Question 66

Strategies change with development E.23

Answer 66

The older children grow the more successful the strategies. This kind of behavior can be seen in some form with children throughout the world and across cultures. Especially evident in children in technologically advanced societies with access to formal schooling.

Question 67

The Critical period E.24

Answer 67

is also known as the sensitive period.  It is a time in development usually early in life when a certain skill or ability is most easily acquired Example is language is easier to learn in the critical period in childhood. Adults can still learn a language in the critical period but it is with greater difficulty.

Question 68

Selectionist theories E.25

Answer 68

any theory that a large number of behaviors/cognitive operations are generated  only those successful ones are selected by the immediate environment and survive question in the exam children try out different behaviors or cognitive operations. they keep those that work and drop those that do not work

Question 69

Nonselected behaviors/cognitive

Answer 69

operations decline in frequency or die  Example children try out different behaviors or cognitive operations and they keep those that work (that the environment selects) and they drop those that do not work (That the environment does not select)

Question 70

What is object permanence? e.26

Answer 70

The knowledge of permanence of objects  Objects have a permanent existence. concept in developmental psychology referring to the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible, heard, or otherwise sensed

Question 71

What is a developmental delay E.27

Answer 71

Defined by the individual states but refers to children ages 3 to 9 who perform significantly below developmental norms

Question 72

Early intervention E.28

Answer 72

Early intervention refers to services and supports provided to infants, toddlers, or young children who are at risk for, or are showing, developmental delays or disabilities. These programs aim to promote the child’s physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development during critical early years. Key Features: Focus: Addressing delays in areas like speech, motor skills, or behavior. Timing: Delivered during the first few years of life when the brain is most adaptable. Examples: Speech therapy, physical therapy, or family training. Goal: To improve long-term outcomes by addressing issues early and maximizing developmental potential.

Question 73

What is Special Education? E.29

Answer 73

It is specially designed instruction to meet the unique needs of an individual recognized as exceptional * Example: Vision impaired may need larger print books * Teachers, speech therapists, psychologists, social workers, occupational therapists and those that provide related services should work as a team to address the needs of the individual with a disability

Question 74

What is a category? E.30

Answer 74

Label assigned to an individual who share common characteristics and features

Question 75

There are 13 categories of disability

Answer 75

1. Autism 2. deaf-blindness 3. developmental delay 4.emotional disturbance 5. hearing impairments including deafness 6. intellectual disability 7. multiple disabilities 8. orthopedic impairments 9. other health impairments 10. specific learning disabilities 11. speech or language impairments 12. Traumatic Brain Injury 13. Visual impairments including blindness

Question 76

Empiricism

Answer 76

Human knowledge and thought derive ultimately from sensory experience (vision, hearing, touch, and so forth)

Question 77

What is Learning?

Answer 77

 Any process through which experience at one time can alter an individuals behavior at a future time.  Any subsequent behavior that was not part of the individuals immediate response to stimuli during the learning experience

Question 78

Structure

Answer 78

A part of the person that develops examples Muscle, nervous tissue, or mental knowledge

Question 79

Function

Answer 79

function is the action related to a structure examples Movement of a muscle, firing of a nerve, or activation of a mental representation

Question 80

Structure vs Function

Answer 80

Structuralism: Focuses on what the mind is made of. Breaks mental processes into basic elements (e.g., sensations, emotions). Functionalism: Focuses on why the mind works the way it does. Studies the purpose of mental processes in helping individuals adapt. Main Difference: Structuralism analyzes the structure of the mind, while functionalism examines its function and purpose.

Question 81

Reinforcement

Answer 81

A stimulus change that occurs after a response that increases the subsequent frequency of that response.

Question 82

Positive Reinforcement

Answer 82

Arrival of some stimulus following a response makes the response more likely to recur. In other words, adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior. Example: A child gets a piece of candy for completing their homework, encouraging them to do homework again.

Question 83

Negative Reinforcement

Answer 83

Removal of some stimulus following a response makes the response more likely to recur In other words, removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior. Example: A student studies hard to avoid getting scolded by their teacher, which increases their studying habit.

Question 84

What is Classical Conditioning?

Answer 84

It is a learning process that has to do with the formation of new reflexes It was discovered by Ivan Pavlov Pavlov’s Dogs (Original Experiment) Before Conditioning: Food (Unconditioned Stimulus, UCS) naturally causes dogs to salivate (Unconditioned Response, UCR). A bell (Neutral Stimulus, NS) rings, but the dogs show no reaction to it. During Conditioning: Pavlov repeatedly rings the bell (NS) just before presenting food (UCS). The dogs salivate (UCR) due to the food. Over time, the bell becomes associated with food. After Conditioning: The bell becomes the Conditioned Stimulus (CS), and the dogs salivate (Conditioned Response, CR) even when no food is present.

Question 85

What are sleeper effects?

Answer 85

These sleeper effects are various issues and problems that may show up later in development. One example can be found with young children of divorced parents, who show no signs of mental stress or trauma as a result of the divorce, often exhibit difficulties regarding relationships, trust, and intimacy during early adulthood While we see the sleeper effects show up later in development other may be resilient and are able to deal with the challenges There are many other factors involved. For example, a parent may have substance abuse issues but other family members step in providing a positive environment and become a role model/example for the child instead The sleeper effect was discovered by Carl Hovland, Arthur Lumsdaine, and Fred Sheffield in 1949 There are other examples in the sleeper effect unrelated to child development For instance, during political election campaigns, often, the candidates of the opposing party are targeted via negative remarks, advertisements, or news. This largely affects the undecided voters, who initially dismiss these occurrences as being slanderous attempts, but later, due to the sleeper effect, retain only the memory of the message but not the source, causing them to vote against the defamed candidates

Question 86

Maturation

Answer 86

It is a genetic or biologically determined process of growth that unfolds over a period of time. example A child naturally progresses from rolling over, sitting up, crawling, and then walking as they mature, following an orderly sequence of physical development.

Question 87

Culture

Answer 87

culture refers to the shared patterns of behaviors, beliefs, values, customs, and traditions that are learned and passed down through generations within a group of people. It influences how individuals think, feel, and act, shaping their perceptions, social interactions, and understanding of the world.

Question 88

Law of Association

Answer 88

If a person experiences two or more environmental events (stimuli or sensations) at the same time or one right after the other (contiguously) these 2 or more events will become associated (bound together) in the person’s mind

Question 89

Empirical research

Answer 89

Scientific studies of observable events that are measured and evaluated objectively

Question 90

Nativism

Answer 90

It says that knowledge and rules are native to the human mind, inborn and do not have to be acquired through experience  People must already have built into their mind certain concepts such as space and time to even begin to understand what a shape is for instance

Question 91

Differences between experiments, correlational studies and descriptive studies

Answer 91

Experiments aims to study cause and effect correlational compares two subjects to find cause and effect and descriptive goes in dept of why a behavior is happening.

Question 92

experiments

Answer 92

An experiment is the most direct and conclusive approach to testing a hypothesis (about a cause-and-effect relationship between 2 variables)

Question 93

correlational studies

Answer 93

Researcher does not manipulate any variable but observes or measures two or more variables to find relationships between them

Question 94

descriptive studies

Answer 94

Aim is to describe behavior of an individual or group without systematically investigating relationships between specific variables

Question 95

What is a genotype?

Answer 95

It is a set of genes that an individual inherits

Question 96

What is a Phenotype?

Answer 96

Refers to the observable properties of the body and behavioral traits