FINAL EXAM Flashcards
(168 cards)
1
Q
The anaerobic production of ATP is known as
A
Glycolysis
2
Q
The regeneration of ATP goes from a 6 Carbon molecule known as __________, which reacts with __ ATP, forming 2 _________ acids which are 3 Carbons each.
A
The regeration of ATP goes from a 6 Carbon molecule known as Glucose, which reacts with 2 ATP, forming 2 pyruvic acids which are 3 Carbons each.
3
Q
Using oxygen and mitochondrial enzymes and cytochroms to regenerate ATP is known as
A
The TCA Cycle & Fatty-Acid Oxidation
4
Q
This cycle is also known as Krebs cycle, which is known as oxidative phosphorylation
A
The TCA Cycle
5
Q
What is the byproduct of the TCA Cycle?
A
CO2
6
Q
After Glycolysis occurs, ATP production from the aerobic breakdown of carbohydrates like glucose, using the co-enzyme A “shuttle” into this area of the cell
A
Mitochondria
7
Q
Fatty-acid oxidation occurs from the ATP production from the breakdown of _____ _____, using O2 and mitochondrial enzymes and cytochromes.
A
fatty acids
8
Q
What are the by-products of fatty-acid oxidation?
A
CO2 and the “ketone bodies”
9
Q
What are the 3 ketone bodies?
A
AAA, HBA and acetone
10
Q
Ketone bodies can be used in ALL tissues for energy EXCEPT in the…
A
liver
11
Q
At high/low levels, keto-acids HBA and AAA can cause dangerous changes in ______ _______.
A
At high levels, keto-acids HBA and AAA can cause dangerous changes in blood acidity.
12
Q
Recruiting sources of energy from different organs or tissues for energy during starvation. Liver cells are essential. This is known as
A
Whole-animal biochemistry
13
Q
Liver & muscle cells can both STORE excess glucose as _______, when stimulated by the pancreatic hormone, ________.
A
Liver & muscle cells can both STORE excess glucose as glycogen, when stimulated by the pancreatic hormone, insulin.
14
Q
Pancreatic hormone
A
insulin
15
Q
What cells are the only ones capable of secreting glucose into the blood?
A
liver cells
16
Q
What do liver cells need to be stimulated by in order to secrete glucose into the blood?
A
Cortisol, glucagon and epinephrine
17
Q
What type of cell cannot secrete their glucose?
A
Muscle cells
18
Q
What is the process of storing glucose as glycogen in the muscle and liver?
A
While dietary carbs are digested, they create blood glucose. When blood glucose is added with insulin, it then produces liver glycogen and muscle glycogen.
19
Q
When glucose is released, how is it different between how the muscle glycogen is released versus how the liver glycogen is released?
A
Muscle glycogen uses epinephrine to create glucose, which is then used internally only by that muscle cell.
Liver glycogen uses glucagon and epinephrine to create glucose, which is then secreted to blood glucose and can be used throughout the body.
20
Q
New glucose synthesis during starvation is known as
A
gluconeogenesis
21
Q
T/F: New glucose is synthesized by the liver from fats (glycerol) and proteins (amino acids) recruited from other tissues.
A
True
22
Q
All processes of gluconeogenesis are stimulated by the adrenal hormone known as
A
cortisol
23
Q
What is the adrenal hormone?
A
cortisol
24
Q
This hormone is short-acting, from the pancreas islets, and favors storage of potential energy supplies
A
insulin
25
T/F: When insulin affects the liver cells and muscle cells, it increases uptake of blood glucose and amino acids, as well as increasing synthesis of glucose , which produces glycogen and amino acids.
True
26
T/F: When insulin affects fat cells, it decreases the synthesis of glycerol and fatty acids into triglycerides (fats)
False, INSULIN INCREASES THE SYNTHESIS OF GLYCEROL AND FATTY ACIDS INTO TRYGLYCERIDES (FATS)
27
This hormone is short-acting, from the pancreas islets, and favors the release of glucose
Glucagon
28
T/F: When glucagon affects the liver cells, it does so by breaking down the glycogen into glucose and then releasing it into the blood.
True
29
This hormone is short-acting, from the adrenal medulla, it favors the release of glucose from the liver, and it is found in the muscle.
Epinephrine
30
Do glucagon and epinephrine affect the liver cells in the same way?
Yes
31
T/F: When epinephrine affects the liver cells, it breaks down glycogen into glucose which is then released into the blood.
True
32
T/F: When epinephrine affects muscle cells, it breaks down glycogen into glucose. Which then can be used wherever.
FALSE! GLUCOSE IN MUSCLE CELLS CAN ONLY BE USED IN MUSCLE CELLS!
33
The hormone of starvation
cortisol
34
This hormone is long-acting, from the adrenal cortex, and stimulates gluconeogenesis
Cortisol
35
T/F: Cortisol is used in liver cells to stimulate enzyme production for converting.
True
36
This hormone is known as T3, it is long-acting, and from thyroid follicle cells
Thyroid hormone
37
What type of hormone increases metabolic rate in all tissues except thyroid gland cells.
Thyroid hormone (T3)
38
As found in the sequence of events in starvation, at how many days can death occur?
60 days
39
How many amino acids are there that cannot be synthesized from the precursors by humans?
9 amino acids
40
What are 5 of the 9 amino acids that cannot be synthesized from the precursors by humans?
- Histidine
- Isoleucine
- Leucine
- Lysine
- Methionine
- Phenylalanine
- Threonine
- Tryptophan
- Valine
41
Insulin is known as a
51 aa polypeptide
42
How many chains are in insulin?
2 chains
43
What are the 2 chains found in insulin?
A=21 aa and B=30 aa
44
In insulin, there are 2 chains held in place with three ___________ _________, formed between cysteine amino acids.
Disulfide Bridges
45
Where is insulin made?
In beta cells of islets of Langerhans in the pancrease
46
What is the percentage of insulin cells in the islets?
40-70%
47
What type of insulin is closest to human insulin?
Pig insulin
48
How does pig insulin differ from human insulin?
Differs by 1 aa at the end of the B chain
49
What company can convert pig to human insulin chemically?
The Eli Lilly Company
50
Recombinant human insulin known as _______, is synthesized in bacteria. The A & B chains are synthesized separately and then linked together.
Humulin
51
What are the 2 substitute insulins?
Pig insulin & Recombinant human insulin (Humulin)
52
What is the major overall effect of insulin?
To decrease blood glucose primarily by actions on the liver, resting muslce & fat tissues.
53
What is the normal fasting blood glucose?
80-110mg/100mL of blood
54
What are the 4 stimuli for insulin secretion?
High blood glucose
High blood amino acids
Vagus nerve stimulation
Caffeine
55
Does vagus nerve stimulation occur in the sympathetic nervous system or the parasympathetic nervous system?
parasympathetic
56
How many peptide chains does glucagon have?
1 polypeptide chain
57
How many amino acids does glucagon have?
31 amino acids
58
Where is glucagon made?
Glucagon is made in the alpha cells of islets in the pancreas
59
What is the major overall effect of glucagon?
To increase blood glucose primarily by its actions on the liver
60
What is the difference between insulin and glucagon?
Insulin decreases blood glucose and glucagon increases blood glucose
61
What is the stimulation required for glucagon release?
Low blood glucose
62
T/F: Insulin actions oppose the actions of glucagon & cortisol.
TRUE
63
T/F: In general, all of insulin's effects tend to lower blood glucose and prevent gluconeogenesis.
True
64
What does insulin do to the liver?
- Increases uptake of glucose
- Increases conversion of glucose to glycogen
- Increases uptake of amino acids
- Increases protein synthesis
- Increases synthesis of fats
- Decreases gluconeogenesis
65
What does insulin do to the resting muscle?
- Increases uptake of glucose
- Increases glucose utilization
- Increases conversion of glucose to glycogen
- Increases uptake of amino acids
- Increases protein synthesis
66
What does insulin do to adipose tissue (fat tissue)?
-Increases synthesis of fats
67
What are the 3 tissues that DO NOT require insulin to function?
- brain and peripheral nerves
- gastrointestinal tract
- exercising muscle (heart)
68
Explain the mechanism of insulin action...
Insulin binds to an insulin receptor protein on the outside of a target cell; the insulin receptor protein contains an enzyme, tyrosine kinase, which becomes active and starts an enzyme cascade to trigger the effects of insulin inside the cell.
69
The insulin receptor protein contains an enzyme, what is this called?
Tyrosine kinase
70
What does glucagon do to the liver?
- Decreases uptake of glucose from blood
- Increases conversion of glycogen to glucose
- Decreases uptake of amino acids from blood
- Decreases protein synthesis
- Decreases synthesis of fats from fatty acids in blood and glycerol
71
Explain the mechanism of glucagon action...
Glucagon binds to a glucagon membrane receptor outside of the cell, the filled receptor protein activates a coupling protein in the membrane, called a "G-protein". The G-protein activates a nearby adenylate cyclase enzyme protein inside the cell, the cyclase enzyme generates cyclic AMP (from ATP) inside the cell. Cyclic AMP starts a cascade of enzyme activations leading to glycogen breakdown & other actions. The cyclic AMP ("cAMP" for short) is called a "second messenger" since, like the first messenger, the hormone glucagon, it starts a series of reactions inside the cell.
72
What is the coupling protein in the membrane called?
G-protein
73
This starts a cascade of enzyme activations leading to glycogen breakdown & other actions.
Cyclic AMP or cAMP
74
What is the normal fasting blood glucose rate?
80-110 mg/100ml blood
75
BG stands for
Fasting blood glucose
76
If a patient has hyperglycemia, what does this mean according to their fasting blood glucose (BG) rate?
Hyperglycemia means ABOVE normal BG
77
If a patient has hypoglycemia, what does this mean according to their fasting blood glucose (BG) rate?
Hypoglycemia means BELOW normal BG
78
What condition occurs when the fasting blood glucose rate is >126 mg%?
Diabetes mellitus
79
What condition occurs when the fasting blood glucose rate is
serious CNS signs, blurred speech
80
What are the cardinal signs of diabetes?
- Excessive urine production
| - Honeyed urine : glucose in urine
81
to describe excessive urine production, it is termed
"flowing through"
82
mellitus=
honeyed
83
If urine is at a mellitus state (or honeyed) it is when glucose is found in the urine, this is also known as
The renal threshold or the transport maximum
84
What is the clinical definition of diabetes?
fasting blood glucose > 126 mg% in 2 successive readings
85
What are the 2 forms of diabetes?
Type I Diabetes
| Type II Diabetes
86
Which form of diabetes is insulin requiring, and which is not?
Type I diabetes requires insulin use, type II diabetes does not!
87
About 10-20% of diabetics are this type
Type I
88
About 80-90% of diabetics are this type
Type II
89
This type of diabetes is when almost no endogenous insulin is produced and there are almost no functioning BETA cells.
Type I Diabetes
90
This type of diabetes is the most common form, insulin levels are near normal, but insulin resistance is present.
Type II Diabetes
91
In type I diabetes, what are the symptoms like?
Symptoms are severe to life-threatening
92
In type II diabetes, what are the symptoms like?
Symptoms are mild to severe
93
When is the onset of type I diabetes?
Onset usually 5-20 years old
94
When is the onset of type II diabetes?
Onset in middle age, 40-50 years old
95
Which type of diabetes is associated with obesity?
Type II Diabetes
96
Can type II diabetes be controlled by diet and exercise without drugs?
Yes
97
In type II diabetes, why does the insulin resistance occur?
Insulin resistance is due to decreased efficiency of insulin receptors on target cells
98
When does acute diabetic crisis occur?
- No or almost no insulin production
- Failure of glucose uptake by liver, fat and resting muscle
- Failure of glucose utilization by same tissues
- Unopposed stimulation of gluconeogenesis by cortisol: liver produces glucose from amino acids and glycerol
99
If acute diabetic crisis occurs, what does it lead to?
Hyperglycemia
100
What is another term for angiopathy?
Atherosclerosis
101
Chronically high blood glucose causes capillary and arteriolar defect, what is this known as?
Microangiopathy
102
Microhemorrhages lead to...
```
Diabetic retinopathy (blindness)
Diabetic Glomerulopathy (kidney failure)
```
103
Diabetic retinopathy is known as
blindness
104
Diabetic glomerulopathy is known as
kidney failure
105
What are the 2 long-term problems of poorly controlled diabetes?
Angiopathy (Atherosclerosis) & Neuropathy (Nerve Damage)
106
Chronically high glucose in and around sensory nerve cells first causes tingling, then blocks action potentials, what is this known as?
Neuropathy
107
Where is the hypothalamus formed from?
The two sides of the third ventricle of the brain
108
Where do some of the hypothalamus's axons extend down into?
The posterior pituitary gland
109
What is the hypothalamus composed of?
- nerve cells
- glial cells
- ependymal cells that make cerebrospinal fluid
110
What does the hypothalamic nuclei control?
- temperature
- appetite
- thirst
- sleep
- sexual behavior
111
This area responds to excess body heat
Anterior Hypothalamic Area
112
This area responds to environmental cold
Posterior Hypothalamic Area
113
Of the anterior hypothalamic area and the posterior hypothalamic area, which area stimulates skin vasodilation, perspiration and apathy and which area stimulates shivering, skin vasoconstriction and hunger?
The anterior hypothalamic area stimulates skin vasodilation, perspiration, and apathy.
The posterior hypothalamic area stimulates shivering, skin vasoconstriction, and hunger.
114
What does core temperature represent?
The combined heat loss and heat production of the body.
115
What is core temperature?
the abdominal cavity temperature
116
What is the normal core temperature?
37 degrees C +/- .5 degrees C
117
Muscle contraction or shivering is one way the hypothalamus mechanisms to raise body temperature, this is causing ____________ of vessels near the surface of the skin.
Vasoconstriction
118
Hypothermia is when the body temperature is high/low?
low
119
Hyperthermia is when the body temperature is high/low?
high
120
What is any agent that causes fever known as?
Pyrogens
121
If you have a fever, you have....
hyperthermia
122
What is the treatment of fever?
1) Increase heat loss: cold compresses, light clothing & bedding
2) Administer anti-pyrogens: aspirin, ibuprofen, APAP
123
If one has a fever or hyperthermia, when does it become dangerous and when does it become potentially fatal?
Danger begins at 41 degrees C or 106 degrees F
| Fatal is at 43 degrees C or 109 degrees F
124
Symptoms of hypothermia begin at what temperature?
32 degrees C or 90 degrees F
125
At what point of hypothermia does a victim lose consciousness?
28 degrees C or 83 degrees F
126
What are some causes of hypothermia?
- excessive heat loss due to wind evaporation over skin
- conduction loss to cold water known as immersion hypothermia
- insufficient muscle heat due to exhaustion
127
What are common signs of hypothermia?
- slurred speech
- poor motor control, fumbling
- irrational behavior
128
What is the treatment for hypothermia?
1) Remove from wind
2) Move carefully, do not jostle
3) Change to dry, windproof clothes ASAP, do not overwrap
4) Monitor heart for irregularities-Be prepared to do CPR
5) Make a body sandwich
6) Do not give alcohol or sedatives
7) Do not leave unattended
129
pituitary=
hypophysis
130
anterior pituitary=
adenohypophysis
131
posterior pituitary=
neurohypophysis
132
hypophysectomy=
removal of pituitary
133
sella turcica=
bony casing enclosing pituitary
134
infundibulum=
stalk
135
This is where optic nerves cross behind the eyeballs; a landmark for locating hypothalamus structures.
Optic Chiasm
136
T/F: All of the pituitary and hypothalamus hormones are proteins or polypeptides.
True
137
This type of hormone consists of two protein subunits, each with carbohydrates attached.
Glycoprotein hormone
138
This type of hormone is one unit with no carbohydrate groups
Protein hormones
139
Pituitary cells that produce ACTH are called
corticotrophs
140
Pituitary cells that produce TSH are called
thyrotrophs
141
Pituitary cells that produce FSH are called
gonadotrophs
142
Pituitary cells that produce LH are also called
gonadotrophs
143
Pituitary cells that produce GH are called
somatotrophs
144
Pituitary cells that produce prolactin (PRL) are called
lactotrophs
145
This is the process of forming haploid (1N) sperm cells from diploid parent cells by the process of meiosis
Spermatogenesis
146
In the control of testosterone secretion, the effect of the negative feedback system is to
keep blood testosterone levels constant
147
These secrete LH, which stimulate the conversion of cholesterol to testosterone in the Leydig interstitial cells found in the testis, outside of the seminiferous tubules.
Gonadotrophs
148
These like the inside of the seminiferous tubules of the testis, they are intimately associated with developing germ cells that will become sperm.
Sertoli cells
149
What carries testosterone into the tubules and is necessary for normal sperm production?
Androgen binding protein: ABP
150
This is a 19-carbon steroid, made in the Leydig cells of the testis
Testosterone
151
Effects of testosterone:
- ANABOLIC, promotes peripheral protein synthesis (muscle)
- Testis: stimulates spermatogenesis
- Increased amount of myofibrils and muscle size
- Increased bone
- Promotes hair growth
152
T/F: All anabolic steroids are testosterone derivatives.
True
153
In the testis, this stimulates interstitial Leydig cell growth and synthesis of testosterone.
LH
154
In males, this acts on the sertoli cells of the testis to make ABP, which increases the concentration of testosterone in the seminiferous tubule, increasing the rate of spermatogenesis.
FSH
155
This is a 14-aa releasing hormone, made in the hypothalamus, that stimulates the release of both FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary gland.
GnRH
156
This is a 560-aa protein secreted from the sertoli cells early in embryonic life which inhibits the growth of the precursors of the female reproductive tract tissues during the first 12 weeks' gestation.
Mullerian Inhibiting Substance (MIS)
157
Basic anatomy of lacteal gland & duct development:
- lacteal glands
| - lacteal ducts lined with myoepithelial cells, converging on nipple
158
What is the milk that is made just a few days before parturition, it is the baby's first milk for 24-48 hours.
Witch's milk or colostrum
159
Even though prolactin hormone levels are very high at parturition, there are very few prolactin hormone receptors in the lacteal gland, so what does this mean?
They cannot synthesize milk
160
T/F: Low estrogen and progesterone inhibit the synthesis of prolactin hormone receptors.
FALSE, high estrogen and progesterone inhibit the synthesis of prolactin hormone receptors
161
What does the continue milk synthesis in the lacteal glands require to release prolactin from the pituitary?
It requires physical stimulation of the nipples by nursing
162
What is the link called between the sensory nerves of the nipple and the release of the hormone?
neuroendocrine arc
163
Explain the neuroendocrine arc...
Sucking stimulated nipple touch-receptor nerves which stimulates the hypothalamus neurosecretory cells which promotes the release of prolactin releasing hormone. This then produces new milk for the next feeding!
164
EPT and other pregnancy tests use a strip that is dipped into a urine sample to test for the presence of the hormone....
hCG
165
High cortisol=
Cushing's syndrome
166
low cortisol=
Addison's disease
167
high DHEA=
adrenogenital syndrome
168
high ACTH=
abnormal skin pigmentation
