Final Exam Critical Thinking Flashcards

1
Q

The three criteria for evaluating an argument are

A
  • acceptability, relevance, sufficiency
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2
Q

Which answer best describes “critical thinking”?

A
  • the careful application of reason in the determination of whether a claim is true
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3
Q

What is a “premise”?

A

A claim offered as a reason for believing another claim

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4
Q

What is an “opinion”?

A

A view or judgment formed about something, not necessarily based on fact or knowledge

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5
Q

A premise to an argument is relevant to that arguments conclusion if:

A

The truth of the premise counts in favor of the arguments conclusion

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6
Q

The premises of argument are sufficient if

A

The premises, taken together, give a strong enough reason to accept the conclusion

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7
Q

An argument in which the conclusion cannot be false, if the premises are true

A

A deductive argument

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8
Q

An argument in which the conclusion is held to be improbable, if the premises are true

A

An inductive argument

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9
Q

A defect in an argument that consists in something other than merely false premises

A

A fallacy

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10
Q

An argument is cogent if

A

The acceptable, relevant premises are sufficient to support the conclusion

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11
Q

An argument is valid if

A

It is impossible for the premises to be true while the conclusion is the false

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12
Q

What is the main difference between an “argument” and an “explanation”?

A

Explanations merely seek to inform, whereas argument seek to persuade

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13
Q

What is the basis for determining the relative weakness or strength of an argument?

A

The amount of support the premises provide for the conclusion

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14
Q

Judgments concerning “matters of taste” or ethical determinations are frequently said to be what?

A

Value judgements

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15
Q

Words which carry strong emotive value or associative power

A

Dysphemisms (loaded terms)

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16
Q

The discipline or practice frequently referred to as “the art of persuasion”

A

Rhetoric

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17
Q

The fallacy of sliding from one meaning of a term to another in the middle of an argument. In other words, using an ambiguous term in more than one sense, thus making an argument misdleading

A

Equivocation

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18
Q

A person who stands to gain soemthing from our belief in a claim is known as

A

An interested party

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19
Q

A person who does not stands to gain something from our belief in a claim is known as

A

A disinterested party

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20
Q

When a new or old term is designated to mean something distinct within a specific context, it is said to have

A

Stipulative definition

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21
Q

When an arguer attacks the person with whom they are arguing rather than that person argument

A

Argumentum ad hominem (argument against the person)

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22
Q

A form of ad hominem fallacy that occurs when it is assumed that an argument is wrong if the source making he claim has itself spoken or acted in a way inconsistent with it. The fallacy focuses on the perceived hypocrisy of the opponent rather than the merits of their argument

A

Ur quoque (you also)

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23
Q

The fallacy of arguing that a claim must be true merely because a substantial number of people believe it

A

Appeal to popularity

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24
Q

The fallacy of distorting, weakening, or oversimplifying someone’s position so that it can be more easily attacked or refuted

A

The straw man fallacy

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25
Q

The fallacy of arguing that a claim is true just because it has not been shown to be false

A

Appeal to ignorance

26
Q

The fallacy of deliberately raising an irrelevant issue during an argument as a diversion or distraction from the main topic

A

The red herring fallacy

27
Q

The error of thinking that previous events can effect the probabilities in the random event under consideration

A

The gamblers fallacy

28
Q

The fallacy of drawing a conclusion about a target group based upon an inadequate sample size

A

Hasty generalization

29
Q

The fallacy of pre-providing information which will create a bias against the speaker before they have a chance to offer their argument

A

Poisoning the well

30
Q

The fallacy of citing a source whose credibility is in question

A

Appeal to unqualified authority

31
Q

The fallacy of claiming that a moderate or sensible action will inevitably lead to an extreme action, therefor the moderate action should not be taken

A

The fallacy of slippery of slope

32
Q

A fallacy involving circular reading in wherein the conclusion to the argument is assumed or stated in one or more of the premises

A

Begging the question

33
Q

The fallacy of presenting two scenarios- one desirable one undesirable- as if they are the only alternatives available

A

False dichotomy or false dilemma

34
Q

The term describes the weight of evidence or argument required by one side in a debate or disagreement

A

Burden of proof

35
Q

The whole collection of individuals under a study

A

Target group( target population)

36
Q

The observed members of a target group in an observational study

A

A sample

37
Q

A sample that is selected randomly from a target group in such a way as to ensure that the sample is representative

A

Random sample

38
Q

A sample that resembles the target group in all relevant ways

A

Representative sample

39
Q

A condition for the occurrence of an event without which the event cannot occur

A

Necessary condition

40
Q

A condition for the occurrence of an event that guarantees that the event occurs

A

Sufficient conditions

41
Q

The fallacy that states that since event Y followed event X, event Y must have been caused by event X:

A

Post hoc fallacy

42
Q

The fallacy wherein someone applies standards, principles, and or rules to towhees while making oneself or certain circumstances exempt from the same critical criteria, without providing adequate justification. Double standards.

A

Special pleading

43
Q

The tendency for individuals to seek out or favor information that supports their established beliefs or opinions, while correspondingly disregarding or avoiding information that does not support their belief structure

A

Confirmation bias

44
Q

When someone maintains a hasty generalization by simply excluding a counterexample from that generalization

A

The no true Scotsman fallacy

45
Q

The fallacy of dismissing an argument or complaint due to the existence of more important problems in the world, regardless of whether those problems bear relevance to the initial argument. If X is not as bad as Y therefore X is not a problem

A

The fallacy of relative privation

46
Q

A form of argument which attempts either to disprove a statement by showing is inevitably leads to a ridiculous, absurd, or impractical conclusion, or to prove one by showing that if it were not true, the result would be absurd or impossible

A

Reduction to absurdity

47
Q

Arguments of this type If P then QP/ Therefore, Q or P>Q, P- Q are referred to as

A

The way of affirmation (modus ponens)

48
Q

The formal fallacy involves arriving at an affirmative conclusion from merely negative premises. Any valid forms of categorical syllogisms that assert a negative premise must have a negative conclusion

A

Illicit negative

49
Q

Traditionally known as an “A maiore ad minus” argument. this class of arguments makes an assertion about a specific member of a class, based upon what holds true for the class more generally

A

Arguing from the general to the specific

50
Q

What should happen to a margin of error a sample size increases

A

It should decrease

51
Q

This type of casual explanation describes the general conditions under which a specific event occurred on

A

A physical cause explanation

52
Q

This type of casual explanation describes classes of human actions as it relates to their psychological, sociological, economic, or historical conditions

A

Behavioral casual explanations

53
Q

A casual explanation offered for further investigation or testing. This is a form of inference to the best explanation

A

A hypothesis

54
Q

An interface between a cause and effect- an apparatus- that has the property of making the effect happen, given the cause. This separates mere correlation from causation

A

A casual explanation

55
Q

According to Harry Frankfurt, what is is that bullshit essentially misinterprets?

A

The intentions of the speaker

56
Q

A diversionary tactic whereby someone shifts criticism from themselves or their allies onto others by bringing up the shortcomings of the interlocutor or their allies by saying “what about…” followed by some unrelated event, action, or position

A

Whataboutism

57
Q

A form of persistent manipulation that causes the victim to doubt her or himself, and ultimately lose their own sense of perception, identity and self worth

A

Gaslighting

58
Q

A theory of truth which states that the truth of any proposition consists in its coherence with some specified set of propositions

A

A coherence theory of truth

59
Q

A theory of truth which that’s that truth consists in a relation to reality, I.e., that truth is a relational property involving a characteristics relation (to be specified) to some portion of reality (to be specified):

A

A correspondence theory of truth

60
Q

In their book, manufacturing consent, Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky maintain that in a democracy, physical force is typically removed as a means of coercion. Therefore, control in a society must rely upon on what

A

Propaganda

61
Q

Within a sentence, the properties of being “right”, “wrong”, or “indifferent” are said to reflect the statements

A

Truth function