Final Exam (Lectures) Flashcards

Question

Def: Conjoint Marriage

Answer 1

Conjoint marriage is where two brothers simultaneously married to two women

Answer 2

- More than one man and woman - Very rare - The Caingang people of Brazil practiced group marriage, but even among them, only 8% of unions were group marriages - Transitory for the most part

Answer 3

• Levirate = when a man dies leaving wife and children, one of his brothers marries her to provide social security and to raise the children • Sororate = when a wife dies, her husband marries her sister Both cases allow ties established between two families to be maintained by supplying substitute spouses

Answer 4

- Man or woman has a series of spouses, one after the other - Increasingly common in the western world - Children tend to stay with the mother after the marriage ends

Answer 5

- The Western view that anyone can marry whoever they like is unusual - Problems crop up with ideals of youth and beauty, glamour - Emphasis on romantic love - marriages can be based on transitory emotions and trivial characteristics - The divorce rate in the Western world suggests that there are problems with selection of spouses

Answer 6

* Most marriages are arranged because young people are not considered responsible or objective enough with regards to marriage partners * Arranged marriages are often set up by the family and take into account things like economics, social class, compatibility - tend to have some advantage to the rest fo the family monetarily or politically * Are not common in the general Canadian population, but are more common in immigrant families

Answer 7

All types of cousin marriage serve to keep wealth within the family and allow marriages to individuals of equal rank.

Answer 8

* In the Trobriand Islands, when a couple wants to get married they sit in public on the veranda of the man’s house * The bride’s mother brings cooked yams and after they eat them, the marriage is official * A day later, the bride is given by her husband’s sister three long banana leaf skirts showing that the bride is no longer an adolescent * For the first year of the marriage, the bride’s mother supplies cooked yams * Gift giving of yams and valuables between families is to bind the two families together through a series of obligations

Answer 9

* Is a payment to the bride’s parents or close kin * It compensates them for losing the bride’s labour when she moves to her husband’s home * The woman’s family can use the money to provide a home for her or to finance the wedding ceremonies * Usually it must be refunded if the marriage ends thus it contributes to the stability of the marriage * Other types of compensation may be the exchange of women between families or the Kula necklace (Trobriand bride price)

Answer 10

Bride service is when the husband works for his wife’s family for a certain length of time

Answer 11

* Dowry is wealth a woman brings to a marriage * It might be her portion of the family inheritance and does not necessarily remain under her control, often her husband gets it * One function of dowry is to give the woman support if she is widowed

Answer 12

- A group composed of a married couple, common-law couple, or an individual parent and any of their offspring - A woman, her dependant children, and one adult male related by marriage or blood - A kinship group raising children, whether natural or adopted

Answer 13

• Consanguine family: woman, woman’s offspring and her brothers (Nayar of India) • Conjugal family (nuclear family): married or common-law couple and their children • Polygynous family: one man, his wives and their children (polygamous family) Polyandrous family: one woman, her husbands, and children (polygamous)

Answer 14

* Emerged recently, partially due to the Catholic Church prohibiting close marriages, discouraging adoption, not allowing divorce, polygyny or remarriage * Resulted in closer ties between spouses, some marriages did not produce heirs * 20% of marriages produce only daughters, 20% are childless * Property began to be transferred to the Church as a result and the church became largest landowner in Europe in the Middle Ages

Answer 15

1. Raising children 2. Children rely on their parents for protection, food, socialization and interaction 3. Human children are more vulnerable at birth, take longer to mature than any other primate

Answer 16

* The process where culture is passed down from one generation to the next, beginning at birth, it continues through life * Children learn from family, friends, neighbours, adults * In our society, children are sent to school, learning tends to be through observation, participation, correction

Answer 17

Enculturation: The process by which children acquire their culture Socialization: A similar to process to enculturation that emphasizes social rather than cultural factors in learning one’s culture

Answer 18

* Households are task-oriented residential groups * They organize and implement economic production, consumption, inheritance, child rearing, shelter * The core of a household may be one or more families * Household members are not necessarily part of the families in it * Households are not present in all societies

Answer 19

* This is a conjugal family considered the standard in North America * Couples do not as a rule look after aging parents * Occurs in societies like the Inuit where the environment is harsh and mobility an asset * Allows for easy mobility

Answer 20

* A collection of nuclear families related consanguineally that live together in one household * Common in past, now seen mostly in immigrant communities * Might include grandparents, their children and grandchildren * Making a reappearance as children are starting to care for their elderly parents in the home rather than send them into institutionalized care facilities * Communes in the 1960s were an attempt to form extended families amoung young people

Answer 21

• Most controversial form of family • Face social stigma and discrimination in past could not marry, but no longer the case • Two types: ○ Step-families where children are from previous heterosexual relationships ○ Co-parent families where lesbians conceive through a sperm donor or gay men who have adopted, fostered, or used surrogacy Lesbian step-families are most common

Answer 22

* Woman goes to live with her husband and his family/household * Common in societies where inheritance is patrilineal and men are primary bread winners * About 69% of cultures have this pattern

Answer 23

* Man moves to his wife’s household * Hopi are an example * Prominent in horticultural societies where women play a big role in economics * About 13% of cultures have this pattern

Answer 24

* Married couple can choose matrilocal or patrilocal * They tend to go where their labour is needed the most * The choices made in previous generations may also have an influence * About 9% of societies have this residence pattern

Answer 25

* Couple can move where they like * Not tied to the family * “New place” * About 5% of societies use this residence pattern and it is the most common residence pattern in North America

Answer 26

* Couple moves to husband’s mother’s brother’s household (uncle) * Shows up in matrilineal societies where property rights are important * About 4% of societies have this pattern

Answer 27

* Polygynous families can have jealousy problems * One solution is to marry sisters who get along (sororal polygyny) * Provide wives with separate houses * Rotation of sleeping partners by husband * Polyandry solves jealousy by marrying one wife to two or more brothers (fraternal polyandry) * Older husbands/brothers tend to dominate younger ones who tend to leave when there are conflicts

Answer 28

* Who is going to make decisions * Spouses marrying in may have problems adjusting and some cultures allow them to return to their parent’s home * Mechanisms in society tend to put pressure on that restrict this (the concept of “face”)

Answer 29

* Face economic pressures which may force both spouses to work * Neolocal residence pattern means old established roles may no longer apply * When background/cultures of spouses are diverse, this can cause stresses in the marriage * Lack of female relatives to support during pregnancy, childbirth, child rearing

Answer 30

* Children remain with mother after divorce, or with women who have not married and have no spouse in residence * Child support can be a problem * Where money for housing, food, cleaning, comes from can be an issue * May not have kin available for children while the mother works * Lack of skills, lower wages… * Women in this situation tend to live in poverty * Female-headed households are increasingly common worldwide

Answer 31

Sex: inherited, biological differences between males and females Gender: culturally constructed ideas about sex differences “Sex is what’s between the legs, gender is what’s between the ears”

Answer 32

XX + feminine behaviour = woman XY + masculine behaviour = man XX + masculine behaviour = masculinized female XY + feminine behaviour = feminized male XX or XY or intersex + gender neutral behaviour = asexual or neuter XX or XY or intersex with a combination of feminine and masculine behaviours = androgynous ***IMPORTANT: “masculine” and “feminine” are defined by the culture we’re looking at, not the anthropologist’s point of view

Answer 33

The culturally-prescribed behaviour associated with men and women; roles can vary from society to society

Answer 34

The culturally prescribed values assigned to the task and status of men an women; values can vary from society to society

Answer 35

- Archaeologists mostly male - Focus on “male” activities and their material culture residues - Projectile point automatically gets thought of as a male object, and pots associated with female activities

Answer 36

- Informants may be reluctant to discuss sexual practices with strangers - The anthropologist may not be comfortable with the topic - Tremendous variation exists in the way sexuality is viewed, it is partially a cultural construct

Answer 37

* Is common worldwide * Western cultures define it based on the desire to have sexual relations with someone of the same sex * In other cultures it is more tied to gender roles than purely the biological aspects * In many past/present cultures it is viewed as normal and acceptable (past Greek, Roman society; present Papua New Guinea)

Answer 38

* Clothing * Mannerisms * Mode of speaking, voice pitch, language use (grammar, gender) * Mode of address, he, she, he, shemale * Use/non-use of make-up, jewellery, body modifications * Spatial segregation * Legal distinctions * Sexuality

Answer 39

* Part of the First Nations culture * Two-spirited refers to their spiritual ability to cross gender boundaries and the physical/spiritual realms * For decades, the two-spirited tradition was suppressed, but it has re-emerged as a way to empower native peoples who do not fit into the gender roles of man or woman

Answer 40

* This is not a Native term, but a French one (originating from the Persian) used to describe the two-spirited * While widely used in anthropology, it is not the appropriate term to use as it has negative connotations

Answer 41

* Dress as woman * Perform women’s tasks * May have sexual relations with a man (more typical) or woman who tends to not be two-spirited * Their two-spirit identity is believed to be the result of intervention from supernatural powers * Many receive visions or dreams, and have a role as shamans as they cross gender boundaries and thus can cross the border between the human/spirit world

Answer 42

• Female who dress as men • Follow a man’s lifestyle, becoming hunters, warriors and chiefs • Could be titled the same as male two-spirited or with a distinct term • Tend to form relationships with non-two spirited women, and could have multiple wives • Ex) Pine Leaf (of the Gros Ventre Crow) ○ Rose to the status of Chief ○ Had four wives • Held considerable political influence in her tribe and region

Answer 43

* Best known and most studied of India’s third genders * We’re born male, intersexed or hermaphrodite, but dress and act like women * Many have had surgery which castrated and or emasculated them * Have the right to inspect any newborn and claim those who are not clearly male or female * They survive by begging, singing and dancing in public, and prostitution * Are heavily stigmatized and openly discriminated against

Answer 44

* Mentioned in the Hindu religious texts but not as well known or widespread as the hijras * Title is feminized from sadhu (male holy man) * Documented among the Gaddis of the Himalayan foothills * Are female ascetics who renounce marriage and remain celibate * Dress as men and cut their hair in a priestly tonsure * A girl can choose to become a sadhin at the age of 6, but more typically the decision is made close to their first menarche * The choice to be a sadhin is not reversible * They retain their female names * Do not renounce the material world other than in their adherence to chastity * Sadhin are expected to remain virgins and become asexual in terms of sexual behaviour * They may choose to take on masculine occupations and sit with men at events where men and women are segregated, but do not attend funerals with the men * They may also make offerings to the spirits of their fathers and ancestors, rituals normally performed by the son * Unlike hijras, sadhin do not have a special ritual role in society nor any special powers

Answer 45

* Within Indian society, the only roles generally accepted for females are that of wife and mother * The Sadhin gender allows those who reject those roles an alternate choice, but one which must be made before puberty * Sadhin are non-threatening to societal norms in terms of sexuality as sex is removed as an option for these unmarried females who opt out of the traditional wife-mother roles

Answer 46

* All Western cultures recognize “man” and “woman” as genders * Other genders may exist (transgendered, gay, lesbian, bisexual) but not be formally recognized or accepted * In the past, those with alternate genders were forced to live “in the closet” or assume a gender which was more acceptable to their culture * Gender in the West is primarily defined based on sexual partner preferences rather than other behaviours

Answer 47

A group of people beyond the domestic unit who have relationships outside that of kinship

Answer 48

Primary group: those who interest and know each other personally Secondary group: identify with one another on common grounds but may never meet or interact personally with each other

Answer 49

- Informal groups tend to be smaller, less visible, less hierarchal in organization and do not have legal recognition (often primary) - Members of formal groups may not know one another and interaction is not as close or face to face (often secondary) - More variety in groups is found among agricultural and industrial societies than foragers and pastoralists

Answer 50

* Primary social group * People choose their friends, and friendship is voluntary * Gender segregation can limit cross-gender friendships * Tends to occur between social equals * Support is mutual * Close friends can be referred to by kinship terms (brother, sister, aunt, uncle)

Answer 51

* Define membership based on shared identity (heritage, occupation, business, religion, gender) and objectives * Can have political and economic roles * Women’s clubs tend to offer psychological support to members and act as political lobby groups * Men’s clubs with strong male-male bonds can objectify women and occur where male competition is common

Answer 52

* Are groups formed to deal with specific issues * Tend to form in urbanized societies * May be a reaction to wide separations between family members, with the CI group supplying a social structure * May range from completely voluntary to compulsory * Can have groups based on an interest in sports, social problems (MADD), service to the community (Kinsmen, Kiwanis) spiritual experience (native secret societies), work (unions)

Answer 53

* Formed by those outside the mainstream culture * Resistance to the dominant cultural pattern is typical * Bonding through initiation and rituals is important

Answer 54

* Groups of young people usually found in urban areas, who are considered a problem by adults and law enforcement * Can be formally or informally organized * Usually have initiation rituals, symbolic markers of membership and a recognized leader

Answer 55

* Have no formal leadership or initiation rituals * Are unemployed young males who came to Honiara looking for work rather than work the fields under senior family members * Tend to wander about town in groups of ten * Live with kin or communally with other liu members

Answer 56

* Have no formal leadership or initiation rituals (although receiving an “ASBO” is considered “cred-worthy”) * Are unemployed youth who are usually on social assistance and living in “council” (social housing)Tend to wander about town in groups, intimidating and threatening passers by * Tend to wear brand-name athletic clothing, Burberry Check patterns, and large amounts of “bling”

Answer 57

* More formal organization with a leader and hierarchy of members under him/her * Have recognizable names and mark identity with tattoos or “colours” * Not all street gangs are involved in violence * Members are from a variety of family backgrounds, but most are defiant individualists (intensely competitive, wary, self-reliant, socially isolated and strong survival instinct)

Answer 58

* Emerged from the 1% of those in motorcycle groups who were troublemakers according to mainstream riders * Outlaw clubs wear colours or a club insignia * Tend to modify their motorcycles * Territories are defended, sometimes by force * D.R. Wolf did fieldwork in one gang and observed that members were looking for an identity and community not provided elsewhere

Answer 59

* A community of people strengthened through body modification * Mainly consists of those who have undergone genital piercing, branding and cutting * “Initiation” consists of going onstage as a volunteer and having an expert perform some sort of body modification in public

Answer 60

* Are initially organized to perform specific tasks where a large number of people are required * Most common in horticultural and intensive (non-industrial) agriculturalist cultures * Typically composed of young men who do not have the same restrictions as young women in patrilocal societies

Answer 61

* An economic group where surpluses are shared between members and decision making is through democratic voting by the membership * Most typical types are agricultural, credit and consumer

Answer 62

* Co-op buys cloth and thread in bulk and distributes it to the women who are members * They sew molas (cloths with applique designs) which are paid for by the co-op at full price * Only a small cut is taken for the co-op * Allows the women to have a steady income outside of the tourist season

Answer 63

* Groups formed to achieve specific personal goals (weight loss, support during bereavement) * Are increasingly common on the internet * In Mexico, AA is mostly composed of low-income, working class males, many of who migrated to the cities looking for work (alcoholism is related to poverty), but the group has high rates of sobriety

Answer 64

* Remember sex refers to biology, gender to cultural constructs * Gender roles are delineated in every culture * Some can be seen as stereotypes (men like football, women to shop) * Division of labour by gender is common in almost every society

Answer 65

“…some are more equal than others…”

Answer 66

* Formation of groups based on age * Used to organize groups in most societies * In industrial societies, age groups tend to move through a series of age grades (kindergarten to grade 12) * Also can look at retirement age, age to drive, to drink alcohol, to vote * Retirement communities often have age restrictions * Labels can be age related - teenagers, retirees, middle-aged, senior citizens * Entry into or exit from an age grade may happen on an individual basis by biology (puberty) or socially recognized event that changes status (marriage, childbirth) * Age grade members may not have the same physiological or calendar ages * Usually a specific time is required to pass from one grade to the next * Senior age grades may expect respect from their juniors, but there is not necessarily a distinction in status between the two

Answer 67

* Old age can bring great respect * Women may reach equal status with men * The elderly are rarely abandoned - Inuit only did this in cases of truly dire and desperate circumstances when a group’s survival was at stake

Answer 68

* Seniors are seen as living libraries of knowledge * Often play a teaching role in their cultures * No longer have to participate in subsistence activities

Answer 69

* Seniors are not as important for transmitting knowledge, and their role/status is problematic * By 2026, seniors will make up 21% of the Canadian population, compared to 13% today * Elderly are seen less as an asset and more as an economic burden

Answer 70

* Also known as age “cohorts” * A group of people who are initiated into an age grade who move through the system together * Members of age sets tend to have close ties throughout their lives

Answer 71

* Is typical of large societies with centralized political control (ex-Ancient Maya, Modern England) * Society is divided into classes that are ranked, and do not share equally in basic resources (wealth), influence (power), or prestige ( social esteem) * Lower ranked classes tend to have less power and fewer privileges than those that are higher ranked * Each rank in a stratified society has its own set of restrictions, obligations * Stratified societies are comprised of institutionalized inequality

Answer 72

* Inequality is necessary for the maintenance of complex societies * Canadian society has different types of workers - doctors and maintenance workers, are necessary, but with different status assigned to their professions (More education = Higher status) * In practice this theory doesn’t work that well (Hockey players aren’t necessary, yet are better paid than nurses are) * Ignores barriers faced by minorities and those from lower socioeconomic strata

Answer 73

* Emphasizes class conflict * Those in the upper level of society attempt to maintain the status quo * Those in the lower levels who struggle for a more equitable division of resources - wealth, power, prestige * Evolved out of the work of Karl Marx - struggle between: Bourgeoisie (own the resources) and Proletariat (working class)

Answer 74

- a person’s position or standing within society - Each status has a level of relative prestige assigned to it - Every status or rank has a role assigned to it - the behaviours which are expected from someone of that status

Answer 75

* **class=ACHIEVED STATUS - a category of individuals of equal or near equal prestige according to the system of evaluation (there can be inequality within a class) - North America is divided into lower, middle and upper class based on income levels or divided based on education

Answer 76

* A system which allows for upward mobility within a society * One achieves a higher class through merit by succeeding * Rewards go to those who earn them is a tenet of this ideology * In North America, a popular belief in all classes is that rewards are based on equal opportunity and merit

Answer 77

1. Verbal evaluation: allows people to decide what class one belongs to based on what one says about their society (dialect someone uses) 2. Association: who one interacts with, where, how, why, how formal or informal one is to others 3. Symbolic indicators: activities and possessions that one does/has = status symbols (occupation, dress, form of recreation, where one lives, the type of car you own)

Answer 78

* Race is used to categorize groups of people based on biological or physical features * Emerged in the 18th century colonial period when it was used to justify expansion and dominance over other people * Stereotyping still remains today

Answer 79

- is the belief that one “race” is superior to all others due to biological and/or cultural reasons - Often “justified” by genetics - Similar to ethnocentrism, but often has exploitation behind it

Answer 80

* In fact, there is no biological basis for the term “race” * The concept cannot be applied to human biological differences * Humans have interbred so much that populations cannot be clearly classified based on the presence or absence of traits * There is more genetic, physical and psychological diversity within a so-called “race” than there is between “races” * “Race” is simply not a scientifically useful concept

Answer 81

* Ethnicity is derived from a shared sense of identity and common cultural features * Can be identified by dress, language, culture, religion * No ethnic group is homogeneous * China formally monitors ethnic groups which it considers a threat to state stability * When ethnic groups leave their homeland, they become a diaspora population, and risk isolation and discrimination * Canada is a multicultural, multiethnic society

Answer 82

****ASCRIBED STATUS • Caste (from the Portuguese casta) is a fixed system where one is born into a particular rank • Caste membership is based on who your parents are, is determined at birth • Almost NO mobility • Castes are strictly endogamous • The Hindi word for caste is varna (colour or shade)

Answer 83

* Purusha Sukta (Hymn of Man), a primal man with a thousand heads and a thousand feet, was the universe * When he was sacrificed and dismembered, his bottom quarter became the world, the words from his mouth became the god Indra, his arms turned into the warrior caste, his thighs became the common people, and his feet the untouchables * All of creation came from him * The moon (mind), sun (eye), wind (breath), sky (head), earth (feet), and atmosphere (navel) * It is difficult to determine when the caste system originated as this myth is in the Vedic texts (pre-1000BCE)

Answer 84

* All stratified societies have mobility of some sort * Societies that allow a great deal of mobility are called open-class, those that restrict mobility are closed-class societies * Mobility is easier in societies with nuclear families, but more difficult in those with extended because the entire family moves up not just the individual

Answer 85

* Is the unequal access to wealth, power, prestige * Results in a disadvantaged, subordinate position for women * Not all societies exhibit this * Gender stratification appears with the development of strongly centralized states * In Canada today, men and women are considered equal but on average women still earn less than men * Lower classes show more gender equality than the upper ones

Answer 86

Western World: Seen as a symbol of gender segregation and male domination Muslim Women: 1. Practical - protects from the elements 2. Privacy - a way to avoid unwanted male attention 3. Religion - requirement of their beliefs 4. Fashion - in Egypt, veiling has become popular as a fashion accessory 5. Conformity - family or culture obliges them to wear it * Women see hijab as a way to protect men from themselves!

Answer 87

- Women have private areas in the house where unrelated men are not allowed to enter - “women’s spaces” - Often several brothers will share a house, and their wives have a communal women’s quarters - It is seen as a practical arrangement which gives the women privacy

Answer 88

- Yes! - Job stereotyping - men as firefighters, women as nurses - Organizational - Masonic lodges restrict their membership to men only, while the women belong to another group - Segregated washrooms

Answer 89

- Religion promises a better afterlife, or the possibility of reincarnation as a higher status individual - One lineage having seniority over another’s or from one group having more prestige than another - Ethnic groups can be put into subordinate positions (South Africa) - Immigrant groups often find themselves at the bottom of the social hierarchy (Expected to “pay their dues” before climbing the social ladder)

Answer 90

The means a society uses to maintain order internally and manage its affairs with other societies externally

Answer 91

Politics is not universal - some cultures have no durable ranking systems and little aggression

Answer 92

Band or tribal level cultures

Answer 93

Chiefdoms and states

Answer 94

• In uncentralised systems ○ Everyone participates in decision making ○ Loyalty and co-operation are freely given (for the most part) • Centralized systems ○ Rely more on force and coercion ○ This eventually lessens the system’s effectiveness • In democracies, legitimacy is conferred by vote

Answer 95

1. Power: The ability to bring about the wanted results, usually through persuasion or force 2. Authority: The right to take action of certain forms based on the individual’s status. Does not rely on the use of force 3. Influence: Ability to achieve a desired aim by exerting social or moral pressure. Can be used by those of any status level

Answer 96

- Tend to be found among food foragers and other nomadic societies where extended families camp together - A small group of politically independent but related households - Tend to be kin groups - Probably the oldest form of political organization

Answer 97

* Everyone tends to know everyone else which reduces the potential for conflict * Getting along is valued * Gossip, ridicule, mediation, direct negotiation are used to settle disputes * Solutions tend to be those considered just by those involved, not based on rules or laws per se

Answer 98

• Decisions are made by the consensus of all adult band members rather than a majority • Leaders obtain that position based on the virtue of their ability (ascribed) ○ Lead only as long as the community is confident in them ○ Cannot force people to abide by their decisions - people follow them as long as it is in their best interest to do so ○ If a leader steps over the line, his followers leave him

Answer 99

* A system involving separate bands or villages integrated by factors such as clans that unite people in separate communities, or by age grades or other associations that cross-cut kinship or territorial boundaries * Tribes tend to have some form of herding or farming as their means of subsistence * Tend to have one or more sedentary village communities * Each group is autonomous until the situation requires them to group together - defence, carrying out a raid on enemies, pooling resources, harvesting a bumper crop

Answer 100

* Leadership is informal * Leaders are respected for their wisdom, but cannot enforce decisions and have no formal means of control * Can use oratory to persuade * Social controls include gossip, criticism, withdrawal of co-operation, belief that antisocial actions cause disease

Answer 101

* A village leader who has acquired his personal power via his own merits, such as oratory, magic, courage, hunting, farming, animal husbandry, and exchange of wealth * From this personal power, the big man develops a faction of supporters; About 75% of major bigmen are the sons of bigmen

Answer 102

* Conspicuous generosity through mokas is one way bigmen compete with one another and gain prestige * Mokas are formal feasts where gifts are exchanged to create a series of obligations which will produce more mokas * Putting on a moka requires at least one wife as it is the results of the women’s production which is given away

Answer 103

- An association of people who believe they share a common ancestry - Elders or headmen regulate members’ affairs and represent the clan in relations with other clans - Elders within a clan may form a council

Answer 104

- Similar to clan but rarer and less extensive - Lineage is broken down into smaller lineages based on how far from the ancestor one is - Lineage segments are all equal, but sides are taken based on which one you are most closely related to

Answer 105

- Leopard skin chiefs exist outside the lineages in Nuer Society and can persuade sides to settle rather than fight - Fights occur over such things as cattle theft, adultery and watering rights in the dry seasons - He has the respect of both groups, but cannot impose settlements - He can curse the party who refuses to accept a reasonable settlement - The threat is that supernatural forces will help the stubborn party’s enemies if he persists in refusing to settle the dispute

Answer 106

-Youths are initiated into an age-grade -Pass from one age-grade to another as they grow older and reach the appropriate ages -This system is used by the Masai of Africa and Sambia of Papua New Guinea ( Boys go to the men’s clubhouse at age 10-12 After they enter the men’s house, boys go through six initiations. These are based on age grade.)

Answer 107

Grouping based on common interest | Ex) military societies or warrior’s clubs of Plains Cree in the 19th century

Answer 108

* A political organization where two or more local groups are organized under a single individual (chief) who is at the head of a ranked hierarchy of people * A person’s status is based on how closely related they are to the chief, closer relationship = higher status * Office of chief is usually hereditary, passing from the man to his or his sister’s son

Answer 109

- Chief is true authority figure - his rulings must be obeyed - Chain of command linking all levels exists = Serves to bind the outlying communities to the center - Power is maintained through personal abilities even though the office might be inherited (a semi-sacred position) - Chief controls economic activities, and chiefdoms are typically redistributive - Chief can amass wealth and pass it to his heirs, as can other high ranking families

Answer 110

- In Precolonial times, women could reach the rank of Chief of Women among the Yoruba - She was the women’s political spokesperson in the highest level of government - The only female member of the king’s council - An achieved position - British colonialists changed her role, removing the iyalode from any positions of power

Answer 111

* When several chiefdoms join together, they form a confederacy * This is headed by a Chief of Chiefs (Parmanount Chief) * The Hawaiians, Iroquois, Cherokee, Algonquins, and Hurons were all confederacies

Answer 112

* Political power is centralized in a government which may use force to regulate its citizens and deal with foreign states * Tend to have large scale intensive agriculture * Tend to have larger populations, cities * States have institutions - bureaucracy, military, official religion, provide a means for groups to function as a whole * States are not permanent - many have arisen and fallen in the last 5000 years * States have the ability to delegate authority to maintain order * Police, foreign ministries, other bureaucracies are designed to protect citizens * Have codified rules for proper behaviour called laws

Answer 113

- A group of people who share a common language, culture, territorial base, political organization, and history - Nation and state can be different things, and a state can be seen as being composed of many nations - Emerging national movements use cultural symbols and shared history and language as unifying agents

Answer 114

- Deals specifically with the study of social control and conflict - Law is not always a separate institution in a culture, but can be embedded in social life

Answer 115

* If a wife was being abused by her husband and using normal means didn’t solve the problem, Igbo women had an extreme practice they could resort to * “Sitting on a man” meant that all the women from the community would come and sit outside the home of the offending husband * They would sing offensive songs, make fun of him, and mock his sexual prowess day and night to torment him * Women might go on strike and refuse to cook or have sex with their husbands until the grievance was met * These measures were usually enough to prompt a resolution in the wife’s favour

Answer 116

• Can be built into individuals internally or exist as external sanctions • Cultural controls rely on internal built-in deterrents ○ Shame, loss of face ○ Fear of the supernatural for punishment ○ Promises of a pleasant or unpleasant afterlife •May involve coercion

Answer 117

* Sanctions rely on other members of the society taking action towards approved or disproved of behaviour and may involve both cultural and social controls * Positive sanctions are used to encourage approved behaviour, while negative sanctions discourage disapproved acts * Informal sanctions emphasize cultural control and tend to be spontaneous expressions of disapproval * Negative sanctions that are formalized and enforced by an authorized political body are codified as laws * Sanctions must be applied consistently in order to be effective * Not all societies use laws, and there are ways besides laws to maintain order

Answer 118

* Offences are seen as disputes between individuals * They are settled by those involved * They may hold a song duel where they heap insults on one another * Applause of the spectators determines the outcome * If the dispute still isn’t settled, one of the combatants moves to another band * There is no legal binding authority in this society

Answer 119

* Disputes are settled in courts by applying law codes * Law codes are social controls that are enforced by overt coercion * The aim is to assign guilt and punish the guilty, not to help the victim * Offenders are arrested by police, tried by the courts, and might be fined or imprisoned in punishment * Victims rarely receive compensation or restitution

Answer 120

1. Defines relationships between members of society by determining proper behaviour under specific circumstances - this tells people how they are to behave 2. Gives authority to enforce the laws, through coercion if necessary, to the centralized governing authority (government and judiciary system) ○ If there is no centralized political control, this authority may be given to the injured party 3. Functions as a way to redefine social relations and ensure social flexibility - as new situations arise, old rules are re-evaluated and change done as needed

Answer 121

* Crime occurs when people break social norms, even in the face of severe sanctions * Crime can be defined as a breach of public rights that affect a community * A tort is a civil injury or infringement on an individual * Where centralized control doesn’t exist, all offences are viewed as against members of the society

Answer 122

- Corporal (pain on the body) or capital punishment (decapitation of the body) - Indentured labour - Exile - Compensation of the victim or fines

Answer 123

- The concept of prison is a recent development historically - Long-term detention of prisoners first appeared in the 1600sCE in Europe - After being locked, up they can be rehabilitated whereas before prisons, they thought they weren’t able to change the criminal

Answer 124

* Officials had both civil and judicial duties * There was no appeal in Mayan law * Penalties were intended to either defer the offenders or compensate the victims * Judgment was swift, and sentences were carried out in public as a lesson to the community * A thief became the servant of his victim; murderers were put to death; sometimes as part of a ritual sacrifice * For minor crimes, a criminal’s hair was cut off as a sign of disgrace

Answer 125

when the disputing parties reach a settlement between themselves voluntarily

Answer 126

when a settlement is reached with the participation of a third party - the mediator may be able to enable a settlement, but cannot enforce it

Answer 127

involves an authorized third party who can issue a binding decision that the parties are compelled to accept

Answer 128

Warfare might involve a series of financially bankrupting displays like the revenge potlatches

Answer 129

- Headhunting, feuding, and polygamy were banned | - This caused considerable confusion when the changes made no sense to the indigenous peoples from a cultural standpoint

Answer 130

* Game of Cricket = conflict resolution ritual * Europeans introduced cricket on the Trobriand Islands * Indigenous people added dance, song, decorations * War and competition (dressing up and standing in line) * Taunt the batter to make them miss * Dancing formations based on army that arrived on the Island * Dances based on recent events or ceremonial dances * Competitive sport to resolve conflict between two teams * Substitutes for violence * Home team always “wins” but not by a lot of points

Answer 131

* Intergroup aggression which involves families, clans, tribes or villages * Revenge, tit-for-tat, types of violence can occur for extended periods of time * Headhunting in Papua New Guinea is one form of feuding * In the Americas, the Hatfield and McCoy feud is legendary

Answer 132

* Arises when one ethnic group attempts to gain more autonomy or equitable treatment * Can result from oppression of one group by another * Not homogeneous * Often competition for access to resources is at the root of the conflict rather than cultural/ethnic differences

Answer 133

* Conflict involving illegal and often violent means by subordinate groups to change the status-quo * Has occurred in modern times and are usually triggered by a series of events * Common factors - weak state, military and economic crisis * Many are driven by rural participants rather than urban radicals and occur in colonial contexts

Answer 134

* Lethal conflict within and between foraging groups is rare * Most (85%) incidents of lethal aggression are between members of the same cultural group, and 36% are within the same band * Reasons vary for homicides, but most are due to interpersonal disputes between individuals * Some groups can be more prone to conflict than others * Men were responsible for 96% of all homicides

Answer 135

• War is a recent development in human history (<10,000 ya) ○ Before that point, cultures did not have to compete ruthlessly for resources ○ In agriculture, land ownership is important • Differences in world-views may explain this phenomenon ○ Food foragers tend to see themselves as part of the environment and in balance with it ○ Pastoralists and farmers tend to see the world as there to be exploited and dominated

Answer 136

• The informal organization in bands is not designed to handle warfare ○ They do not have military leaders and have little cause for them • Tribes tend to mobilize on an ad hoc basis for raiding • Chiefdoms are more centralized and have greater access to resources, which allows them to maintain small fighting forces • States tend to have permanent standing armies and hierarchies to control them

Answer 137

• In 1905, Pope Urban II urged the kings and feudal barons of Europe to stop fighting amongst themselves, unite and capture Jerusalem from the Muslims ○ Insisted it was their Christian duty ○ He also implied that there would be economic benefits • Control of trade with China and looting were as much motivations for those who went on the Crusade as the religious basis was

Answer 138

• The best example of nonviolent resistance is the model of civil disobedience used by Mahatma Gandhi to bring about political change • Everyday resistance is common among the disadvantaged; ranges from: ○ Slowed compliance, to ○ Slander, to ○ Theft and arson

Answer 139

* The world’s states no longer exist in isolation and have had to learn to live and work together * International Court of Justice (The Hague, Netherlands) deals with disputes between states and war crimes * United Nations provides an arena for airing disagreements

Answer 140

Religion is derived from the Latin “religio” which refers to an obligation in the sense of piety Combined with “superstitio”, the Romans used it to refer to non-Roman practices

Answer 141

- The beliefs and patterns of behaviour by which humans try to deal with what they view as important problems that cannot be solved with known technology or organizational techniques - People may turn to the manipulation of supernatural beings and powers to overcome these limitations

Answer 142

* “The Father of Anthropology” * Travelled to Central America in the 1850’s * Took extensive notes on what he saw * In 1871, “Primitive Culture” was published * Led to his appointment as the first professor of anthropology at Oxford University * Tylor was influenced by Darwin’s work and proposed that all societies move through stages in a unilinear sequence

Answer 143

* Tylor believed each generation built on what the previous ones had done * Religions moved from simple to more complex with time * During Prehistory, religion was a means to explain natural phenomena in an understandable way * With time, ancestral spirits and nature spirits appear - Tylor coined the term “animism” for this belief system * The next stage was polytheism - multiple gods * Monotheism was the highest stage of religious development

Answer 144

* Armchair anthropologist * Relied on ancient histories, and reports and questionnaires which he received from around the world * Primary area of focus was mythology * Author of “The Golden Bough” * Frazer’s 12 volume encyclopedia on mythology and religion * Like Tyler’s work, promotes the idea of unilinear religious evolution * Early religion was based on magical practices aimed at solving practical problems * In particular, sympathetic (imitative and contagious) magic was used * Frazer proposed that religion replaces early magical practices * People start to assign power and control of the natural world to deities in a more “rational” system of beliefs * Religious specialists appear when this shift occurs

Answer 145

Gods and goddesses Ancestral spirits Other spirits Impersonal powers

Answer 146

One god=monotheism Many gods=polytheism -Polytheism tends to have gods assigned to specific roles

Answer 147

* Pantheons are collections of gods and goddesses that may grow in size as the gods of conquered or other peoples are added * Gods may be arranged in hierarchies * Goddesses tend to be prominent in societies where women make a major contribution to the economy

Answer 148

- Ku’s name means “to stand” or “ to strike” | - He was the god of war to whom human sacrifices were made and also the patron of wood workers

Answer 149

- Pele is the volcano goddess - She has five brothers and eight sister who do her bidding - She is known to be capricious and easily offended and appeased

Answer 150

- the gods of fishing - Each fisherman also had his own god, a stone or image of his lineage’s guardian spirit, which was prayed to and given offerings - Human or fish-shaped stones were either taken fishing or left at home facing the sea - Fishing shrines were built overlooking the ocean in hopes that the gods would attract fish to the area - Offerings of fish were given when a trip was successful

Answer 151

* Uses the idea that people have a body and a vital spirit that can be separate from the body and lives on after death * Deceased ancestors may show an active interest in what happens in their communities and they may even still be considered members of society * Ancestor spirits can be generous or spiteful, may enforce proper social behaviour, tend to reflect and reinforce social reality in their actions * Belief in these spirits is widespread and tends to occur in lineal descent systems * Ancestors may be reborn as new members of their lineage

Answer 152

* In China, sons were traditionally very important because one of their responsibilities was to maintain shrines for their ancestral spirits * Food, incense and money would be offered to the spirits of parents on the anniversaries of their birth and death * For women who marry into their husband’s families, they only become official family members when a tablet with their name in it is placed in the family shrine

Answer 153

- Sees nature as being animated by all sorts of spirits, not just animals, but plants and places can have spirits - These spirits are involved in day to day life and are not remote like gods - They can be malevolent, playful, good, bad - This belief system tends to appear in food foraging cultures who see themselves as part of rather than apart from nature

Answer 154

- Belief in an impersonal power that animates things in the world - It is itself not physical, but it can reveal itself in the physical world

Answer 155

* Mana can be present in men, wood, trees, animals, stone, or any object large or small * Living beings, spirits or men, liberate it and set it free for use through prayer, sacrifice and/or charms * Certain things have mana for particular purposes * A stone will have mana for making yams grow big * A charm might have mana to bring rain * A man might have mana because of some spirit whose power he can use

Answer 156

* Power and prestige were defined in terms of mana * The gods were the full embodiment of this sacredness * Through their family ties to the gods, the nobles also had high mana * Commoners possessed little mana and were forbidden to enter any of the holy places where nobles and gods communicated * One’s actions could increase or decrease their mana

Answer 157

- Body of stories that explain the system in a manner consistent with how people experience the world they live in - All societies have myths, but not all are written down - some are preserved orally - A scared story

Answer 158

- Falsehoods - Simply the stories of the gods of the ancient Greeks or Romans or of other ancient peoples - The belief systems of tribal peoples - An incorrect form of science

Answer 159

* The study of myth is a complex and controversial one * Myths describe creation, explain natural phenomena, and lay ground rules for behaviour * They have been interpreted as distorted versions of real events, allegories * No single model for analyzing myth fits every culture

Answer 160

* The trickster is a mythological being who changes identity from prankster to creator and goes by many names * He appears in many cultures and in many guises * To the Norse, he was Loki, to North American native peoples, coyote or raven * Often he steals fire and gives it to man (Prometheus)

Answer 161

• All cultures tend to have individuals who are especially skilled with dealing with supernatural powers • May also assist other members of their society in doing so Ex) priests and priestesses; shaman or medicine person

Answer 162

* Priests and priestesses are full-time religious specialists * Tend to be socially initiated, ceremonially inducted members of a recognized religious organization, with a rank and function that are defined * Full-time priestess are rare and found in societies where women are economically important * This is changing in Western society where women pastors and ministers, while not common, are not rare either

Answer 163

* Professional kahuna presided at the temples of the chiefs, and kahuna pule oversaw each cult * Only they knew the proper rituals for winning the favour of the gods and obtaining the purity necessary to survive * The Kahuna were also politically powerful because of their direct contact with the gods and their ability to persuade the gods to intervene * Outside of the spiritual realm, kahuna were healers

Answer 164

* The kahuna-nui (high priest) conducted important religious ceremonies, observed and interpreted natural phenomena, performed oracles omens, and advised the king on how to remain in favour with the gods * With the collapse of the traditional religion in 1819, the power of the priests was broken and the position of kahuna-nui abolished * Today, it is a position with religious but no political power

Answer 165

- Part-time religious specialists - Acquire their religious power individually when a mystery or great power is revealed to them - These people receive certain gifts like healing, divination - Anyone can become a shaman in many native cultures - No formal structure controlling religious practices - Trance is an important component of the ritual - May wield great influence but if they consistently fail, they may be driven out or killed

Answer 166

- The romantic view of the shaman is of an exotic practitioner who bridges the divide between the real world and the supernatural - For every individual, in each culture, experiences are different - Shamanism is based in the experience of altered states of consciousness

Answer 167

* Many of the perceptions we have about shamanism are Western inventions * Shaman were poorly documented and discussed more as stereotypes than with a basis in reality * At the worst, shaman were described as practitioners of “primitive” animistic religions (Tylor, Frazer)

Answer 168

* North and South America * Siberia, parts of Asia * Polynesia * Africa * Tends to be associated with hunter-gatherers * In environments where survival can be difficult, the shaman acts as a mediator between his group and the spirit world

Answer 169

• Upper Palaeolithic cave art • Anthropomorphic figures are common • Similar to those from the ethnographic record depicting shamans accessing their animal spirits Ex) Grotte Chauvet Pont d’Arc Southern France: The Sorcerer or Bison Man ○ Bison’s head/shoulders ○ Forelimb ends with human arms and hand; human legs

Answer 170

* A shaman’s ability to contact spirits might be inherited or he/she may be selected by the spirits after a traumatic incident (illness or accident) * To accept the power or not is the individual’s choice * The spirits act as tutors, but most shaman also learn from an older, more experienced shaman as well * Songs, music, clothing/styles, rituals, etc are all learned during a shaman’s lifetime

Answer 171

``` • Altered states can be induced by using ○ Plants or fungi ○ Alcohol ○ Tobacco ○ Rhythmic drumming ○ Hyperventilation (deprivation of oxygen) ○ Meditation ○ Food deprivation The type of state of mind isn’t important, but how it enables the shaman to communicate with the spirits ```

Answer 172

- Religions tend to have prayers, songs, offerings, sacrifices - ways people manipulate the supernatural into doing what they want - Rituals are a means by which people relate to the sacred

Answer 173

* Rituals are public events performed in sacred places or designated times * Ritual can be religious or nonreligious in nature * Ceremony, festivals, sports, etc. All have rituals but are not religious in nature * In general, ritual is a formalized, socially prescribed symbolic behaviour * What is done is predictable * It occurs under a set of circumstances * The acts which take place are symbolic in nature * Ritual can accomplish a specific goal * Ritual changes a person’s status, appeases the gods * It also expresses the worldview of the group and communicates those to the group primarily with vocal language * Typically, social meanings are what is conveyed

Answer 174

``` Birth Puberty Marriage Parenthood Advancement to higher class/status Death ```

Answer 175

* Coined the term “rites of passage” * Was the first to recognize three stages in rituals - separation, transition and incorporation * All cultures have some way to mark important transitions from one status to another * Typically it is milestones in physical maturity which are associated with rites of passage

Answer 176

- separation, transition, incorporation - Separation removes the person from society - Transition isolates the person between separation and incorporation, there may be rituals involved, learning things needed for the new status, etc - Incorporation brings the person back into society in his/her new status

Answer 177

* When the men decide boys are ready to be initiated into manhood, they are removed from the village while the women make a show of resistance (separation) * They are taken to a secret location where rituals are performed that finish with circumcision or tooth removal (transition) * On returning home, the boys (now men) are welcomed with further ceremonies which recognize their new status (incorporation)

Answer 178

• When a Muslim goes on pilgrimage he separates from his society and dresses in a proscribed manner to set himself apart • During his journey to Mecca and while there performing the required rituals, he is in transition • After he returns home, he is given the title haji Pilgrimages are present in many other religions

Answer 179

- rites that mark crises in the life of a group rather than individual - Can be things like a lack of rain, famine, appearance of an enemy - Mass ceremonies are performed to allay the danger from the group, restore the balance - Deaths sometimes have a huge impact on a group and may fit into this category (human sacrifice)

Answer 180

* Illness or misfortune often exposed other social problems in a village as the affliction of the body reflected those * Ritual was used to both cure the patient and settle the conflict * As healing rites were public events with many in attendance, more than just individual disputes could be dealt with

Answer 181

* Among some Melanesian and Brazilian native peoples, cannibalism of the deceased was part of the funerary rite * It was seen as an act of reverence and a way to maintain a tie to the deceased or to enable their soul to continue as part of the group * Symbolic cannibalism is present in Christianity * Hawaiians practiced this not for food but an act of religious rite

Answer 182

* Performed at a luakini at the death of a high chief, dedication of a luakini, when success in combat was requested, or when a very grave state emergency, such as pestilence or famine required the Ku be asked for aid * 2-20 victims were taken from among captives, those breaking taboos or those who offended the ali’I * Many were blind, maimed, or crippled persons * It was one way that ali’I could remove rivals as victims were often their relatives * Sometimes they were dispatched with a club, and their bodies dragged to the altar * More often they were bound and taken alive into the luakini and killed in the outer court * The priests were careful to avoid touching the bodies * Once dead, victims were laid in a row with their faces down on the altar and left to decay there

Final Exam (Lectures) Flashcards

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