final exam review Flashcards
(350 cards)
1
Q
What criteria is nesscary for natural selection to occur?
A
Variation
Inheritance
Differential survival/reproduction
2
Q
Convergent evolution
A
when species occupy similar ecological niches and adapt in similar ways in response to similar selective pressures
3
Q
Divergent evolution
A
When two or more species share a common ancestor but evolve different traits due to different environments/selective pressures.
4
Q
If 2 plants have similar structures bc they evolovled in similar habitats but they do not share the some evolutionary line, what types of traits are these?
A
analogous traits — similar in function or structure but evolved independently
5
Q
Homologous traits
A
traits shared by different species that come from a common ancestor
6
Q
How are homologies used to determine relatedness evolutionary?
A
the more homologous traits two species have, the more recently they shared a common ancestor, helping scientists build evolutionary trees
7
Q
Vestigal features
A
body parts that have lost most or all of their original function through evolution
ex. human tailbone
8
Q
What do vestigal features tell yuo about evolutionary relatedness?
A
showing evidence of evolutionary relatedness and past functions that were once useful
9
Q
Fitness
A
organism’s ability to survive and reproduce in its environment
10
Q
How is fitness determined
A
more offspring = higher fitness
11
Q
What are the diff. evolutionary mechanisms?
A
Natural Selection
Genetic Drift
Gene Flow
Mutation
12
Q
How does evolutionary mechanism lead to evolution of populations?
A
change allele frequencies in a population over time
13
Q
What needs to be in place for population to be evolving via natural selection?
A
Variation
Heritability
Differential Survival/Reproduction
Overproduction
14
Q
How is genetic used to determine ecolutionary relatedness?
A
comparing DNA sequences between species.
15
Q
What does it mean if DNA seq. of 2 species are more similar to each other when compared to other species?
A
share a more recent common ancestor and are closely related in evolutionary terms
16
Q
How can you tell, by looking at genetic or amino acid seq. how closely related species are to each other?
A
Sequence Similarity – The more identical or similar the sequences, the more closely related the species are.
Number of Differences
Phylogenetic Trees
17
Q
What role does the envir. play in evolution of traits in populations?
A
selecting which traits are beneficial for survival and reproduction
18
Q
Polymorphic traits
A
traits that are associated with two or more genes
19
Q
Examples of polymorphic traits in humans
A
ABO blood groups
20
Q
What does it mean when a population is in hardy-weinburg equation?
A
the allele and genotype frequencies within that population are not changing from one generation to the next
21
Q
what conditions need to be met for a population to be in hardy-weinburg equilibrium?
A
No mutations
Random mating
No natural selection
Large population size
No gene flow
22
Q
interbreeding depression
A
a reduction in the overall fitness of offspring
23
Q
how does interbredding depression come about?
A
when closely related individuals breed
24
Q
what are the cons of interbreeding depression?
A
Increased risk of genetic disorders
Reduced fitness
Loss of genetic diversity
Decreased fertility
24
what are the diff. types of selcetion that can occur on populations?
Directional Selection – Favors one extreme phenotype, shifting the population's trait distribution in that direction
Stabilizing Selection – Favors the average phenotype, reducing variation in the population
Disruptive Selection – Favors both extreme phenotypes, potentially leading to two distinct groups within a population
Sexual Selection – Favors traits that increase an individual's chances of attracting mates, even if those traits reduce survival
25
Example of each type of selection
d: Dark-colored moths becoming more common in polluted areas because they blend in better with soot-covered trees
sb: Human birth weight
ds: A population of birds with either very small or very large beaks
ss: Peacocks’ elaborate tail feathers
26
HOw do selection affect the distrubtution f traits within a population?
Directional Selection – Shifts the curve toward one extreme,
Stabilizing Selection – Narrows the curve
Disruptive Selection – Splits the curve
27
What are these selective pressures selecting for?
traits that increase an organism’s fitness
28
balancing selection
a type of natural selection that maintains multiple alleles in a population
29
examples of balancing selection?
--Sickle cell trait protects against malaria
--Predators may avoid rare prey types, giving them an advantage
30
intersexual vs. intrasexual selection
Intersexual Selection – One sex chooses mates based on certain traits
Intrasexual Selection – idv. of the same sex compete for access to mates
30
absolutive dating
a method used to determine the exact age of a fossil or rock in years
31
how is absolutive dating used to date fossils?
measuring the decay of radioactive isotopes in the rocks surrounding or containing the fossil
32
relative dating
determines the order of events or fossils, not their exact age.
33
how is relative dating used to date fossils
comparing their position in rock layers
34
why are islands so intersting to study in term of evolutionary processes?
they act as natural laboratories with unique conditions
35
What does the sudden appearance of fossil species in the geological record mean according to punctuation equilibrium?
--Evolution occurred rapidly in short bursts, likely in small, isolated populations.
--These changes happened too quickly to leave many transitional fossils.
36
the divergence of one species into diff. species within the same geographic area or territory is what type of speciation?
Sympatric speciation
36
examples of this type of speciation event with animals & plants?
Animals:
--Cichlid fish in African lakes – diverge by feeding preference or mate choice
Plants:
Tragopogon (goat’s beard) – hybrid plants in the U.S. formed new species via polyploidy
37
what is the predicted outcome of increased gene flow btw populations?
Reduces genetic differences
Can decrease chance of speciation
37
microevolution
subtle changes that can occur in very short periods of time, and may not be visible to a casual observer
38
macroevolution
evolution of groups larger than an individual
39
How does macroeveolution occur?
Accumulated microevolutionary changes over long time
Speciation events
Extinction
39
if the allel freq. for a trait changes in a pop. over generations leading to a change in the average size or dimension of a trait in that pop. what type of evolution is occurring?
directional selection
40
how are species defined?
A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce viable, fertile offspring
40
what are the diff. species concepts that can be used for defining classifying org. as diff species?
Biological species concept
Morphological species concept
Ecological species concept
Phylogentic species concept
40
what does macroevolutin lead to?
New species (speciation)
Major evolutionary changes
Biodiversity over long time scales
Extinction of species
41
what criteria are needed for each concept?
BSC
--Interbreed & produce fertile offspring
🔹 Reproductive isolation = key
🔸 Limit: doesn't work well for fossils/asexual organisms
MSC
Based on physical traits (size, shape, etc.)
🔸 Limit: subjectivity in deciding traits
ESC
🔹 Based on ecological niche (role in environment)
🔸 Limit: hard to apply if niches overlap
PSC
🔹 Smallest group sharing a common ancestor (based on DNA or traits)
🔸 Limit: requires detailed evolutionary data
41
allopatric speciation
a process where a new species forms when a population becomes geographically isolated from the parent population
42
examples of allopatric speciation events
Squirrels on opposite sides of the Grand Canyon
43
what are diff. species concepts that can be used for defining classifying organisms as diff.species?
Biological Species Concept, Morphological Species
44
examples of each type of reproductive isolation mechanism
Prezygotic Isolation (before mating):
--Temporal: Different breeding times ( skunks)
--Habitat: Different environments (water vs. land snakes)
Postzygotic Isolation (after mating):
--Reduced viability: Offspring die early ( salamanders)
--Reduced fertility: Offspring sterile (mule)
45
biological species concept
A species is defined as a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce viable offspring
reproductively isolated
46
are there other species concepts other than this one?
yes
47
how is biological species concept used to define groups as different species?
no interbreeding
reproductive isolation
cannot produce viable, fertile offspring
47
when did the diff. mass extinctions occur?
Ordovician-Silurian Extinction (~444 million years ago)
Late Devonian Extinction (~375–360 million years ago)
Permian-Triassic Extinction (~252 million years ago)
Triassic-Jurassic Extinction (~201 million years ago)
Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction (~66 million years ago)
48
hybrid zones
areas where two distinct species meet and interbreed
49
adaptive radiation
a rapid evolutionary process where a single ancestral species diversifies into a wide array of new forms
50
protobiont
a simple, self-organizing structure that exhibits some of the characteristics of life but is not yet fully alive
50
what types of events can trigger adaptive radiation to occur?
--mass extinctions
--colonization of new habitats
--evolution of new traits
--environmental changes
50
what the features of protobionts?
--Membrane Structure
--homeostatsis
--self-replication
51
what is thought to be the first thing that was found inside one of protobionts?
RNA
52
what role did the formation of phospholipids play in the origin of life?
enabling the creation of membranes that could separate and protect early biochemical reactions, paving the way for the first cells
53
what was miller-urey experiment?
experiment that demonstrated how organic compounds necessary for life could form under early Earth-like conditions
53
what was the importance of the miller-urey experiment?
🔹 Produced amino acids (life's building blocks)
🔹 Showed organic molecules could form abiotically
53
which era/period did hominis first appear in the fossil record?
Pliocene Epoch of the Neogene Period in the Cenozoic Era.
54
what are 4 stages of the beginning of life on the plant?
1.Abiotic Synthesis of Organic Molecules
2. polymerization
3. formation of protobionts
4.self-replication
55
what did the result show of miller-urey experiment?
🔹 Formed amino acids and other organic molecules
🔹 Showed that complex compounds can form from simple molecules under early Earth-like conditions
🔹 Supported the idea of abiogenesis (life from non-life)
56
what hypothesis did it support in terms of how life started on the planet?
Abiogenesis: Life originated from non-living matter through chemical reactions under early Earth conditions
57
be able to place the 4 stages of the beginning of life on the planet in the correct order
1.Abiotic Synthesis of Organic Molecules
2. polymerization
3. formation of protobionts
4.self-replication
58
what geologic era is considered the "age of dinosaurs"
Mesozoic Era
59
when did mammals first appear in the fossil record?
Triassic Period of the Mesozoic Era
60
how is the geologic time scale documented?
1. fossil records
2. radiometric dating
3. stratigraphy
4. global stratigraphy correlation
60
what are the major events that have occurred in geologic time?
Formation of Earth (~4.6 billion years ago)
First Life (Prokaryotes, ~3.5 billion years ago)
Oxygen Revolution (Great Oxygenation Event, ~2.4 billion years ago)
Cambrian Explosion (~541 million years ago)
First Land Plants (~470 million years ago)
Age of Dinosaurs (Mesozoic Era, ~252–66 million years ago)
Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction (~66 million years ago)
First Humans (Hominins, ~5–6 million years ago)
Rise of Modern Humans (~300,000 years ago)
61
"RNA world" hypothesis
RNA was the first molecule to carry genetic information & catalyze reactions in early life forms.
62
what does rna world hypthises about the origin of life on the planet?
RNA was the first molecule to store genetic information and catalyze chemical reactions in early life
63
what was the significnt outcomes of each of these extinctions?
Ordovician-Silurian (~444 mya) --> marine life hit hard;rise of jawed fish
Devonian (~375 mya) -->more tetrapods
Permian-Triassic (~252 mya)--> dinosaurs rise
Triassic-Jurassic (~201 mya) --> allowed dino. dominance
Cretaceous-Paleogene (~66 mya) --> rise of mammals & modern species
64
how are species named?
binomial nomenclature
64
what is the taxonomic ordering of living organisms, from the broad to the most narrow
Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Dear King Philip Came Over For Good Soup
65
What makes up the tow name system of a species?
Genus name – Capitalized
Species name – Lowercase
🔹 Example: Panthera leo (lion)
65
what are the main kingdoms of life?
Main Kingdoms of Life (under Eukarya):
Animalia
Plantae
Fungi
Protista
65
bionomial nomenclature
A two-name system for naming species:
Genus (capitalized)
Species (lowercase)
66
domain
Broadest taxonomic level.
67
What is monophyletic?
A group that includes a common ancestor and all of its descendants
67
what types of organisms are in each domain?
Bacteria –
🔹 Single-celled
🔹 Prokaryotic (no nucleus)
🔹 E.g., E. coli, cyanobacteria
Archaea –
🔹 Single-celled
🔹 Prokaryotic
🔹 Live in extreme environments
🔹 E.g., thermophiles, halophiles
Eukarya –
🔹 Eukaryotic (have nucleus)
🔹 Includes: animals, plants, fungi, protists
68
What is paraphyletic?
A group that includes a common ancestor and some, but not all, of its descendants
69
What is polyphyletic?
A group that does not share a common ancestor
69
sister taxa
Two groups that share a common ancestor and are more closely related to each other than to any other group.
70
what type of ecological roles do bacteria play?
--decomposers
--nitrogen fixers
--symbionts
--pathogens
--producers
71
What are the structural compponents of a gram positive and negative bacterium?
**Gram-Positive Bacteria**
1. Thick peptidoglycan layer
2. Plasma membrane
3. Teichoic acids
**Gram-Negative Bacteria**
1. Thin peptidoglycan layer
2. Outer membrane
3. Plasma membrane
4. Periplasmic space
72
How are gram postitve & neg. bacterial cell walls diff.?
**Gram-Positive Cell Wall**
- Thick peptidoglycan layer
- No outer membrane
- Contains teichoic acids
**Gram-Negative Cell Wall**
- Thin peptidoglycan layer
- Outer membrane present
- Contains lipopolysaccharides (LPS)
73
How does overuse of antobodies lead to antibiotic resistance?
selective pressure
74
What are the major driving forces that lead to antibiotic resistance?
1. Mutation
2. Horizontal gene transfer (conjugation, transformation, transduction)
3. Overuse/misuse of antibiotics
4. Incomplete courses of antibiotics
5. Selective pressure from environmental factors
74
What is horizontal gene transfer & how does it contribute resistance?
transfer of genetic material between organisms, not through inheritance
--Conjugation – Direct transfer of DNA between bacteria.
--Transformation – Uptake of free DNA from the environment.
--Transduction – Transfer of DNA via viruses (bacteriophages).
75
What domains do prokaryotes occupy in the taxonomic resistance?
--bacteria
--archea
76
Main difference btw prokaryotes & eukaryotes?
Prokaryotes
--No nucleus
--Single-celled
--Simple structure
Eukaryotes
--Nucleus present
--Can be single-celled or multicellular
--Complex structure
77
How are antibodies produced in nature?
produced by B cells in the immune system
78
Why might bacteria produce antibotics in their environment?
inhibit the growth of competing microorganisms in their environment
78
what mechanisms produce genetic variation in bacteria?
Mutation
Conjugation
Transformation
Transduction
79
What types of environment do extreme bacteria inhabit?
High temperature (thermophiles)
High salinity (halophiles)
Acidic conditions (acidophiles)
High pressure (barophiles)
80
what evolutinoary advacement allowed land plants to move out of the moist envir. that bryophytes inhabit to more dry envir.
--vascular tissue
--cuticle
80
bryophytes
informal group name for mosses, liverworts and hornworts
80
how are xtreme bacteria identified given their extreme environmental habitat?
Temperature, salinity, or pH tolerance tests
Molecular analysis
81
Derived traits shared by angiosperms and gymnosperms ONLY
--Seeds (protected embryos)
--Vascular tissue (xylem and phloem)
--Pollen (male gametophyte)
--Sporophyte-dominant life cycle
82
Alternation of generations
a life cycle where a plant alternates between a haploid gametophyte stage and a diploid sporophyte stage
83
What characteristics do the non-vascular land plants have in common?
Lack vascular tissue, small size, live in moist environments, dominant gametophyte stage, reproduce via spores.
84
what adaptive advantages do conifers and pines have for surviving their environments?
Needle-like leaves reduce water loss
thick cuticle
sunken stomata
85
key adaptive characteristic that distinguished gymosperms and ferns
Gymnosperms produce seeds
ferns reproduce with spores.
85
what types of plants require water for reproduction and fertilization?
Non-vascular plants (bryophytes) and ferns.
86
Are all of these plants, vascular plants
no
87
what are they key charactersics of all animals ?
Multicellular
eukaryotic
heterotrophic
no cell walls
sexual reproduction
88
radial symmetry
can be divided into similar halves along multiple planes
89
bilateral symmetry
Body can be divided into left and right sides
90
how are the 2 body plans diff?
Radial has multiple symmetry planes; bilateral has only one
Bilateral animals often have head and tail
91
examples of animals/phyla that represent each type of body plan
radial s: corals, jellyfish, starfish
bilateral s: insects, spider, human, fish
92
Key charactersitcs shared by all vertebrates?
Backbone
bilateral symmetry
internal skeleton
93
what types of animals do not have vertebrate?
Invertebrates
94
What characterstics do the jawless fishes share?
Lack jaws
no paired fins,
ex.lampreys and hagfish.
95
evolutionary significance of the development of jaws in the animals
more diverse feeding strategies
enabling predation
more efficient digestion
96
key characteristics that allowed reptiles to be on land?
Amniotic egg
waterproof skin (keratin)
internal fertilization
96
amniotes
Vertebrates that lay amniotic eggs or have similar adaptations
97
key characteristics of reptiles
Scaly skin
ectothermic (cold-blooded)
internal fertilization
amniotic eggs
98
evolutionary advantage of amniote
provides protection and moisture for the embryo
allowing reproduction in dry environments without the need for water
99
key characteristics of amniotes
Amniotic eggs,
waterproof skin (keratin)
internal fertilization
100
features of amniotes to colonize further inland away from water?
Amniotic egg
waterproof skin
internal fertilization
101
different types of cells that make up the nervous system
Neurons: Transmit electrical signals.
Glial cells: Support, protect, and nourish neurons
101
structure of a neuron
--Cell body (soma)
--Dendrites
--Axon
--Myelin sheath
--Axon terminals
102
what part of the neuron recieves info.?
Dendrites
103
what part of a neuron sends info. to other cells
Axon terminals
103
different parts of neuron
Cell body (soma): Contains the nucleus and organelles.
Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.
Axon: Transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body.
Myelin sheath: Insulates the axon, speeding up signal transmission.
Axon terminals: Release neurotransmitters to communicate with other cells.
Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath, speeding up signal transmission.
104
myelin
a fatty substance that wraps around axons, forming an insulating layer
105
how do neurons send info.?
electrical impulses (action potentials) along their axons
106
what types of cells produce this substance in the CNS & PNS?
CNS: Oligodendrocytes.
PNS: Schwann cells.
107
action potential
an electrical impulse that travels down the axon of a neuron
108
what are the common features of an action potential?
Depolarization
Threshold: Minimum voltage needed to trigger an action potential.
Repolarization: Membrane potential returns to resting state.
All-or-nothing response: Once threshold is reached, the action potential occurs fully.
Refractory period
109
what does it mean to be polarized for a never cell?
has a resting membrane potential, meaning the inside of the cell is more negative compared to the outside
110
how does action potential work to send signals?
--resting stage
--deplorization
--threshold
--propagation
--replorization
--refactory period
--transmission
111
membrane potential
the difference in electrical charge across a cell's membrane
112
factors that involved in maintaining and/or re-establishing a resting membrane potential
Sodium-potassium pump: Actively transports 3 Na+ ions out and 2 K+ ions in, maintaining the concentration gradient.
Ion channels: Potassium (K+) channels are more open at rest, allowing K+ to move out, contributing to the negative charge inside.
Membrane permeability: The cell membrane is more permeable to K+ than Na+ at rest, leading to the net negative charge inside.
Ion gradients: The higher concentration of Na+ outside and K+ inside the cell helps maintain the resting potential.
113
What is the Na+/K+ ATPase?
a membrane protein (pump) that uses ATP to move 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ into the cell, helping maintain the resting membrane potential and ion balance
114
what is the Na+/K+ ATPase function and how does it work?
Function: Maintains ion gradients and resting membrane potential.
How it works:
--Uses ATP for energy.
--Pumps 3 Na⁺ out of the cell.
--Pumps 2 K⁺ into the cell.
--Creates a negative charge inside and keeps Na⁺ high outside, K⁺ high inside.
115
what happens to a nerve cell if the production of ATP is impaired?
--Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase stops working.
--Ion gradients collapse.
--Membrane potential is lost.
116
what membrane channels are involved in changes in the membrane potential of a nerve cell?
--Voltage-gated Na⁺ channels: Open during depolarization.
--Voltage-gated K⁺ channels: Open during repolarization.
--Leak K⁺ channels: Help maintain resting potential.
--Na⁺/K⁺ pump (ATPase): Restores ion gradients.
--Ligand-gated channels: Open in response to neurotransmitters.
117
how are signals transmitted along a neuron?
1. Stimulus triggers action potential.
2. Impulse travels down axon.
3. Myelin speeds it up.
4. Axon terminals release neurotransmitters.
5. Signal passes to next cell.
118
describe a action potential
a rapid electrical signal where the neuron’s membrane briefly depolarizes and repolarizes to transmit information
119
describe the channels involved in the generation of an action potential
--Voltage-gated Na⁺ channels: Open first, causing depolarization.
--Voltage-gated K⁺ channels: Open later, causing repolarization.
--Leak K⁺ channels: Help maintain resting potential.
--Na⁺/K⁺ pump: Restores ion balance after the action potential.
120
describe the restting of the neuron to generate a new signal
neuron resets by closing Na⁺ channels, opening K⁺ channels to repolarize, and using the Na⁺/K⁺ pump to restore ion balance
121
what happens if a toxin impairs the functioning of ion channels in a nerve cell?
neuron cannot generate or transmit action potentials properly, disrupting signal transmission, leading to nerve dysfunction or paralysis
122
what is the absolute refractory period?
time during and after an action potential when a neuron cannot fire another action potential
122
how does this phenomenon direct the transmission of an action potential?
ensures that action potentials only travel in one direction, preventing backflow and allowing for orderly, unidirectional signal propagation along the axon
123
why are the action potentials an "all or nothing" response?
ensures that action potentials only travel in one direction, preventing backflow and allowing for orderly, unidirectional signal propagation along the axon
124
describe the conduction of an action potential down an axon?
--once the threshold is reached, the neuron fires at full strength
--if the threshold is not reached, no action potential is generated
125
does the entire length of the axon change its membrane potential or is it localized changes?
No, the changes are localized and spread along the axon.
126
nernest equation
calculates the equilibrium potential for an ion across a membrane, based on ion concentration gradients
127
what does Nernst equation describe?
equilibrium potential for a specific ion
128
what is the equilibrium potential & how is it established?
--voltage where ion movement is balanced
--established by the ion’s concentration gradient and membrane permeability
129
what determines the speed of conduction down an axon?
--Axon diameter (larger = faster)
--myelination (myelinated axons conduct faster).
130
nodes of ranvier
small gaps in the myelin sheath surrounding a myelinated axon
131
how are nodes of ranvier involved in saltatory conduction?
allow action potentials to jump from node to node speeding up signal transmission along myelinated axons
132
what are 3 stages of info. processing in the nervous system?
Sensory input: Receiving stimuli from the environment.
Integration: Processing and interpreting the sensory information.
Motor output: Sending commands to muscles or glands.
133
what occurs at the axon terminals of neurons?
neurotransmitters are released
134
describe the connection of the axon terminals of one cell to the dendrites or cell surface of another cell.
connect to another cell at a synapse-->where they release neurotransmitters to pass the signal.
135
how are signals transmitted through a chemical synapse?
Signal reaches terminal → calcium enters → neurotransmitters released → bind to next cell → new signal starts
136
pre-synaptic cell?
The neuron that initiates a signal at a synapse
137
post-synaptic cell
cell that receives a signal from a presynaptic cell across a synapse
138
what are the diff. classes of neurotransmitters?
Amino acids – e.g., glutamate, GABA
Monoamines – e.g., dopamine, serotonin
Peptides – e.g., endorphins
Acetylcholine – used in muscles and brain
Gases – e.g., nitric oxide
139
how do neurotransmitters function in the nervous system?
--transmit signals across synapses
--binding to receptors on the next cell to either excite
140
what are the effects of diff. drugs on the nervous system and brain?
--Stimulants (e.g., caffenine, cocaine)
--Depressants (e.g., alcohol, benzodiazepines)
--Opioids (e.g., heroin, morphine)
--Hallucinogens (e.g., LSD, psilocybin)
--Cannabinoids (e.g., THC)
--Antidepressants (e.g., SSRIs)
141
neurotransmitter re-uptake
process where a neurotransmitter is reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron or glial cells that released it
142
what happens if a drug affects re-uptake of diff. neuron transmitters?
A drug that blocks reuptake increases neurotransmitter levels in the synapse
------enhancing or prolonging the signal.
143
how do anti-depressants such as SSRIs work?
--block the re-uptake of serotonin
--increasing its levels in the synapse to improve mood.
144
how do drugs affect this in the nervous system?
affect re-uptake increase neurotransmitter levels in the synapse
---enhancing or prolonging the signal, which can alter mood, behavior, or perception.
145
what are the diff. areas of the brain?
--Cerebrum
--Cerebellum
--Brainstem
--Thalamus
--Hypothalamus
--Limbic system
--Corpus callosum
146
how is the cerebrum divided?
left and right hemispheres
146
what lobes make up the cerebral cortex?
Frontal lobe – involved in decision-making, problem-solving, and movement.
Parietal lobe – processes sensory information and spatial awareness.
Temporal lobe – handles auditory processing and memory.
Occipital lobe – processes visual information.
147
if there is damage to an area of the brain, what happens?
Frontal lobe – affects decision-making, motor skills, and personality.
Parietal lobe – causes sensory or spatial awareness issues.
Temporal lobe – impacts memory, hearing, and language.
Occipital lobe – leads to vision problems
147
what types of functions are controlled in the diff. lobes of the cerebral cortex?
Frontal lobe – decision-making, problem-solving, movement, and speech.
Parietal lobe – sensory processing, spatial awareness, and touch.
Temporal lobe – auditory processing, memory, and language.
Occipital lobe – visual processing.
147
what areas control speech, balance, memory, impulse control?
Speech – Broca's area for speech production; Wernicke's area for language comprehension.
Balance – Cerebellum.
Memory – Hippocampus (part of the limbic system).
Impulse control – Prefrontal cortex
147
describe the sensory pathways for the transmission and perception of sensory info. for an animal.
Stimulus detection – Sensory receptors detect stimuli.
Transmission – Receptors convert stimuli into electrical signals sent via sensory neurons.
Processing – Signals travel to the brain, often through the spinal cord, and are processed in specific brain areas
Perception – The brain interprets the signals, creating a conscious experience of the stimulus.
148
how does an animals' s nervous system receive info. from the envir.?
Sensory receptors detect stimuli-->convert them to electrical signals-->send them to the brain for processing.
148
what are the diff. types of receptor cells?
Mechanoreceptors – detect pressure, vibration, and touch.
Photoreceptors – detect light
Chemoreceptors – detect chemicals
Thermoreceptors – detect temperature.
Nociceptors – detect pain.
148
how are these cells diff.?
their functions are different
149
what are the diff. areas in the brain for processing the diff. senses?
Vision – Occipital lobe.
Hearing – Temporal lobe.
Touch – Parietal lobe
Taste – Parietal lobe (gustatory cortex).
Smell – Temporal lobe (olfactory bulb).
149
sensory adaptation
process where sensory receptors become less sensitive to a constant stimulus over time
149
transduction
The process of converting a stimulus into a signal that the brain can understand
149
how does the strength of a stimulus get transmitted in the nervous system?
increasing the frequency of action potentials sent by sensory neurons
149
what happens to the perception of a stimulus as sensory adaptation takes place?
stimulus decreases over time
150
what happens if these areas of the brain are damaged?
--Occipital lobe (vision)
--Temporal lobe (hearing)
--Parietal lobe (touch)
--Gustatory cortex (taste)
--Olfactory bulb (smell)
--Prefrontal cortex (impulse control)
151
examples of these types of receptors being used by animals
Mechanoreceptors – bats & echolocation
Photoreceptors – hawks & keen vision.
Chemoreceptors – sharks to detect blood in the water through their sense of smell.
Thermoreceptors – pit vipers to detect heat
Nociceptors – burn or injury.
151
how are they activated to send a signal?
Mechanoreceptors –pressure, vibration, or movement.
Photoreceptors – light.
Chemoreceptors – chemicals
Thermoreceptors – temperature changes.
Nociceptors – tissue damage or extreme stimuli
151
what would be the evolutionary advantage for an animal to have electro-receptors?
--hunting
--navigating
--communication
--avoiding predators
151
how do animals use these diff. types of receptors to navigate their envir.?
--Electroreceptors
--Mechanoreceptors
--Photoreceptors
--Chemoreceptors
--Thermoreceptors
151
five main senses in verterbrates
--sight
--hearing
--taste
--smell
--touch
152
what types of sensory receptor cells are involved in hearing and equilibrium?
hair cells
152
what part of the ear picks up sound vibrations first?
Outer ear
152
what are the statocysts function?
detect gravity and acceleration
---stimulate hair cells
152
what types of receptors cell are involved in the diff. senses?
Vision – rods and cones
Hearing – mechanoreceptors
Taste – taste buds
Smell – Chemoreceptors
Touch – Mechanoreceptors
152
how are sounds transduced in the ear?
Sound vibrations move the eardrum, ossicles, and cochlea
152
how is a sound wave transformed into pressure wave in the ear?
Sound wave hits eardrum and causes it to vibrate.
Vibrations pass through ossicles in the middle ear.
Ossicles push on cochlea, creating pressure waves in its fluid.
153
statocysts
sensory organs detect an animal's orientation and balance with respect to gravity
154
where in the brain does auditory info. get processed?
temporal lobe, specifically the auditory cortex
154
how are sounds amplified?
ossicles in the middle ear.
154
what function does the lateral line in fish serve?
water movement and vibrations
------helping fish sense their surroundings
154
what types of sensory cells are involved?
Hair cells (mechanoreceptors)
154
what portion of the ear is responsible for balance and equilibrium?
vestibular system in the inner ear
155
how does a fish use this organ?
lateral line to detect water movement
156
what is the lateral line for?
detects movement, vibration, and pressure gradients in the water around them
156
what the diff. types of sensory cells involved in verterbate vision?
Rods – detect light and dark
Cones – detect color and detail in bright light.
156
what sensory cells are better at low light?
Rods
157
which sensory cells are used for color vision?
Cones
157
what do the visual info. get transduced in the vertebrate eye?
light energy is converted into electrical signals within the retina by photoreceptor cells
158
lateral inhibition
process where an activated neuron reduces the activity of its neighboring neurons
158
what sense use chemoreceptors ?
Taste (gustation)
Smell (olfaction)
158
where in the brain does visual info. get processed?
occipital lobe, specifically the visual cortex
158
what is the diff. btw taste and smell
Taste detects chemicals in food
Smell detects airborne chemicals
158
what is the function of lateral inhibition?
sharpens sensory perception by enhancing the contrast between activated and neighboring sensory receptors
158
what is the structure of photoreceptor cell
- Outer segment– contains light-sensitive pigments.
- Inner segment – connects to the cell body and contains organelles.
- Synaptic terminal – transmits signals to other neurons.
159
are these processes in the same area of the brain?
no
159
olfaction
smell
159
where does olfactory info. get processed in the braini?
olfactory bulb
159
where are the olfactory receptors in humans located?
nasal cavity
159
what type of receptor is used to transduce olfactory info.?
chemoreceptors
160
characteristics of species that have monogamous mating systems?
--pair bonds
--shared parental care
--low sexual dimorphism
--territorality
160
characteristics of species that have polygamous mating systems?
--multiple partners
--sexual dimorphism
--parental care
--competition
160
diff. types of mating systems
Monogamy – One male mates with one female
Polygyny – One male mates with multiple females.
Polyandry – One female mates with multiple males.
Promiscuity - multiple partners for both sexes
160
why would it be advantageous for a male to be territorial?
--access to mates
--resource control
161
reciporcal altuism
idv. helps another with the expectation that the favor will be returned in the future
161
what conditions need to be in place for reciprocal altruism in the animal kingdom?
Repeated interactions
Benefit to both
Ability to recognize individuals
162
examples of reciprocal alturism in the animal kingdom?
Vampire bats – Share blood meals expecting help in the future
162
communication
sending and receiving signals to convey information
162
different forms of communiction that can be used by animals?
Visual
Auditory
Chemical
Tactile
Electric
162
examples of the diff. types of communication
v: peacock displays
a: bird songs
c: ants making trails
t: grooming in primates
e: electrical fish communication
162
how do altrustic behaviors btw close relatives affect the idv. involveed?
increasing the survival and reproductive success of shared genes
162
classical conditioning
an unconscious process where an automatic, conditioned response becomes associated with a specific stimulus
163
Cerebrum
controls higher functions like thinking, learning, and emotions.
164
Cerebellum
coordinates movement and balance.
164
Thalamus
relays sensory information
164
Brainstem
controls basic functions like heart rate, breathing, and digestion
165
Limbic system
emotions and memory
165
Hypothalamus
regulates hormones, temperature, and appetite
165
opernat conditioning
a type of learning where behavior is shaped by rewards or punishments
165
examples of classical conditioning?
Pet Training
165
Corpus callosum
2 hemispheres of the brain
165
examples of operant conditioning
--treat for sitting
--scolding for jumping
166
w.d. hamiliton
British evolutionary biologist
166
what did w.d. hamilton say about altrustic behaviors among kin?
altruistic behavior can evolve if it helps relatives, because they share genes.
166
what conditions make it more likely to act altrustically toward someone?
--Close genetic relatedness
--High benefit to the recipient
--Low cost to the altruist
166
who are you most likely to help?
Close relatives (high genetic relatedness)
Those who have helped you before
167
innate behaviors
instinctive actions that animals are born with
168
learned behavior
behavior acquired through experience or observation
168
sign stimulus
a specific part of a stimulus that triggers a fixed action pattern (FAP)
169
exmples of action pattern behaviors
169
fixed action pattern
a sequence of actions an organism performs in response to a specific stimulus
169
cognitive learning
learning through thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving.
169
is cognitive learning only seen in humans?
NO
169
what determines if an animals stays in one place to forage or if it moves on to a different location?
Food availability
Energy efficiency
Predation risk
Time and effort
170
continous interoprity
reproducing without breeding season
170
proximate causes of behavior
HOW a behavior occurs
170
optimal foragining
when animals seek to get the most energy with the least effort, time, or risk while searching for food
170
iteroparous
organisms that reproduce multiple times throughout their lifespan
170
semelparity
reprducing once then dying
170
ultimate causes of behavior
WHY a behavior occurs
170
what does positive/negative r tell you about a population?
pos. = increasing
neg. = decreasing
171
seasonal iteroparity
iteroparous that reproduce through breeding season
171
diff. methods used to determine used the sizes of pop.?
171
what has general growth pattern of human been ?
Infancy
Childhood
Adolescence
Adulthood
Older adulthood
172
density population control factors?
competiton, disease, and predation
173
how does density dependent pop. control factors control pop. growth?
--Increasing competition for resources
--Spreading disease more easily
--Rising predation
174
density independent factors
--food or nutrient limitation
--pollutants in the environment
--climate extremes,
175
how do density independent factors control pop. growth?
--Natural disasters
--Climate extremes
--Human activities
176
type 1 surviorship curve
High survival early, most die late (e.g., humans)
176
what do survivorship curves tell you about a species life history?
showcasing the pattern of mortality across different ages
176
survivoship curves
graphical representations that illustrate how the # of individuals in a population changes over time
177
examples of density dependent factors that control popultions
Competition: for food, space, or mates
Predation: increases with population size
Disease: spreads more in dense populations
178
age pyramids
graphical representations that illustrate the age and sex distribution of a population
178
type 3 surviorship curve
– High early death, few survive to old age (e.g., insects, fish)
178
type 2 surviorship curve
Constant death rate at all ages (e.g., birds)
178
what would a developed nation's age pyramid look like?
--More rectangular in shape
--Evenly distributed across age groups
--Narrow at the base
--Wider at the top,
179
what does a developing nation's age pyramid look like?
--Triangle-shaped with a wide base
--Shows high birth rates and high death rates
--Narrower at the top, indicating shorter life expectancy
179
what can age pyramids tell you about the characteristics of the countries they represent?
--growth rate
--birth and death rates
--social needs
180
characterstic of r-selected species
Many offspring. Little parental care. Short lifespan
180
example of k-selected species
humans, oak tree, elephant
180
exame of r-selected species
insects, rodents, bacteria
180
characterstic of k-selected species
Few offspring. High parental care. Long lifespan
181
niche
describes the role an organism plays in a community
182
fundamental niche
conditions and resources an organism could use without competition or predation
182
batesian mimcry
when harmless mimics harmful
183
mullerian mimicry
when 2+ species in the species are harmful so predator assumes the entire species
183
relaized niche
conditions and resources an organism could use with competition or predation
184
what happens when there is competition btw species for the same reosurces
One may outcompete the other (competitive exclusion)
They may divide resources (resource partitioning)
----Both may suffer reduced growth or survival
184
what methods do species use to reduce competition for resources within the same niche?
--Resource partitioning
--Territoriality
--Behavioral differences
--Morphological differences
185
how does resource partioning work to reduce competition?
Species divide resources by using them in different ways
186
how does level of distrubance affect species diversity?
--Moderate disturbance increases diversity
--low/high disturbance lowers diversity.
186
what occurs when 2 species occupy the same niche?
competitive exclusion
186
how does character displacement work to decrease competition?
Species evolve differences in traits to use resources differently
187
diff. types of competition?
Intraspecific
Interspecific
Exploitation
Interference
188
is competition btw. species or idv. of the same species a positive species interaction or is it negative?
Negative
189
exploitation competition and ex.
when organisms indirectly compete by consuming shared resources.
ex.Two plants compete for sunlight;one grows taller and shades the other
190
interspecific competition and ex.
competition between different species for the same resource.
ex.Grass and weeds competing for sunlight in a garden
190
examples of commensalism
barnacles on a whale
191
examples of ammenasalism
A large tree shading smaller plants, preventing their growth without benefiting the tree
191
interference competition and ex.
one organism actively blocks or harms another to access resources.
ex.A lion chasing hyenas away from a kill
192
ammenalism
a type of interaction where one species is harmed and the other is unaffected
192
intraspecfifc competition and ex.
competition within the same species for resources.
ex.Male deer fighting for territor
192
commensalism
type of interaction where one species benefits, and the other is neither helped nor harmed
193
what type of species interaction is mutualism?
positive interaction where both species benefit
194
facultative mutualism
both species benefit from the interaction, but they can survive without each other
195
obligatory mutualism
both species benefit from the interaction, but they can't survive without each other
196
what are the different trophic levels that make up a food web?
producers
primary consumers
secondary consumers
tertiary consumers
decomposers
197
parasitism
one species benefits at the expense of the other
197
what is the energy exchange that occurs btw trophic levels?
10% of energy is passed to the next level
198
invasive species
non-native organisms that cause harm to the environment, economy, or human health
198
food web
complex network of interconnected food chains
198
what type of species interaction is predation?
predator benefits and the prey is harmed
199
what are the diff. types of predator defenses prey have developed to avoid being eaten?
=Camouflage
=Mimicry
=Warning coloration
=Mechanical defenses
199
how does biomagnification animals live in?
accumulate in top predators, leading to health issues
199
how does biomagnification affect the animals in an ecosystem?
harms top predators most, reducing survival and reproduction, and can disrupt the entire food web
200
what are the diff. types of predator defenses prey have developed to avoid being eaten?
Camouflage – blending in
Mimicry – looking like something harmful
Warning coloration – bright colors = danger
200
example of each type defense
m: Porcupine’s quills
p: skin
c: Skunk’s spray
b: Meerkats using lookout signals
200
keystone species
a large impact on its ecosystem
200
If not, where is the most biodiversity generally found?
tropical regions
200
how do keystone species affect the ecosystem they are a part of?
maintain balance by controlling populations or creating habitat, supporting biodiversity and ecosystem stability
200
what advantage do invasive species have when they are introduced to anew habitat?
fewer natural predators, rapid reproduction rates
200
how are invasive species introduced to new areas?
accidental
intentional
trade/travel
escaped
200
biomagnification
increasing concentration of toxins as they move up the food chain
201
is biodiversity equally distributed across the globe?
NO
201
what factors influence the distribution of biodiversity across the globe?
climate, geography, soil quality, water avaliability, human activity
202
what are the practical reasons for protecting forests from deforestation?
--biodiversity
=climate regulation
--water cycle
202
how does exploitation/over harvesting affect species?
depletes species populations
leading to reduced genetic diversity
disrupted ecosystems
extinction
202
how can developers try to minimize fragmentation?
--wildlife corridors
--green spaces
--sustainable infrastructure
202
examples of exploitation causing a species to go extinct?
passenger pigeon, dodo birds
202
how can urban planner develop neighborhoods & other developments with the least impact on ecosystem?
--Incorporate green spaces
--Use sustainable building materials
--Implement energy-efficient designs
203
why do most invasive species take over a new area?
thrive because they lack natural predators, competitors, or diseases
203
what role does flagship species play in conservation efforts?
help raise awareness
203
endemic species
plant or animal species that is found exclusively in a particular geographic region and nowhere else in the world
204
flagship species
species chosen to represent a particular cause, habitat, or conservation effort
205
what are some conservation management strategies that can be used to reduce the impact of human development on ecosystem?
--Protected areas
--Habitat restoration
--Sustainable development
--Wildlife corridors
--Regulating invasive species
--Community involvement
205
what has caused the increase in the average global temperature over the last 50 years?
greenhouse gases
205
If it is have humans caused a change in this?
yes
206
is the greenhouse effect a natural phenomenon?
yes
206
what are the leading causes of extinction?
Habitat destruction
Overexploitation (e.g., hunting, fishing)
Invasive species
206
what role do endemic species play in conservation efforts?
crucial for conservation as they are found only in specific regions
206
if so how have we caused this change?
accelerated extinction rates through habitat destruction, overexploitation
206
how has climate change affect the phenology of species and plants throughout the globe?
caused shifts in the timing of seasonal events
207
what is the primary cause of extinction?
habitat loss
207
how has climate change affect the phenology of species and plants throughout the globe?
caused species and plants to shift their seasonal behaviors
207
what is an HAB?
harmful algal bloom
207
what factors have contributed to occurrence of algal blooms in our waterways?
=nutrient pollution
=warmer temperature
=polluted runoff
207
what factors lead to a species being more vulnerable to extinction compared to other species?
Small population size
Low reproductive rates
Limited geographic range
207
ecosystem service
benefit that humans receive from the natural environment
