Final IDs Flashcards
Great Stupa (Buddhist)
ca. 250 BCE
Sanchi India
Significance:
When the Buddah died, his body was divided among stupas, which became religious sites that literally and figuratively spread buddism across India. Fulfilled 3 main functions, 1. provided a focus for meditation, 2. helped with religious teaching through visual storytelling, and 3. through patronage of these stupas, one could gain spiritual merit
Solid interior meant the outside was the site for religious activity, with a stone harmika (symbolizes heaven) surrounding a three tiered parasol (symbollically shields buddah’s relics within)
Double Railings surround the stupa that mark pathways for pradakshina (ritual circumambulation) and the outer railing is punctuated by 4 gates called toranas which mark the cardinal directions and contain narrative reliefs depicting the buddah’s life such as the great departure on an architrave on the eastern torana
The Buddha (Buddhist)
Early 2nd century CE (Kushan Period)
Mathura, India
Material: Red Sandstone
An example of one of the first times the Buddha was represented anthropomorphically (previously represented symbolically). Here the buddha is represented as a seated smiling figure, with his hand raised in a welcoming mudra (symbolic gesture in Hinduism and Buddhism usually involving the hands and fingers). This representation of the Buddha is typical for Mathura sculptures.
The Kushan Empire had two capitals, Mathura and Gandhara, which were both centers of buddhist sculpture production that created very different representations. Mathura used red sandstone to create a smiling seated figure with smooth hair and a sheer shawl draped over one shoulder, the other hand raised in a welcoming mudra. Gandhara, however used grey schist stone and combined elements of roman portraiture with south and west asian visual traditions seen through the heavy draped cloth and thick wavy hair. Also tend to look downwards with serious expressions.
Temple to Vishnu (Hindu)
Early 6th century (Gupta period)
Deogarh, India
Hindu temples were homes for deities on earth, and had an small inner chamber symbolizing a cave called a garbhagriha (held main icon of diety) with a single entrance topped with shikhara (tower above inner sanctum). A devotee would have entered the chamber and performed pradakshina (ritual circumambulation) and stand in the garbhagriha doorway to receive darshan (the auspicious devotional act of seeing and being seen by a deity, holy person, or sacred object in Hinduism.)
The temple’s exterior is decorated with a heavily ornamented doorframe on the western facade and 3 rectangular sculptural panels that depict Vishnu creating the god brahma, Vishnu meditating and preaching the importance of dharma, and Vishnu liberating an elephant king who had been trapped by a sea serpent. Together these panels would have told a story to those who circumambulate the temple (creation, dharma, and liberation) The doorframe is decorated with an image of Vishnu on a serpent surrounded by protective figures such as mithunas (amorous couple representing fertility)
Sculptural Panel showing Vishnu reclining on serpent Ananta
Early 6th century (Gupta period)
Temple to Vishnu, Deogarh, India
- Panel to left = Elephant headed god Ganesha - remover of obstacles and worshiped at the start of a task, indicates to start the pradakshina here
- Crown on central reclining figure shows it’s vishnu laying atop the serpent of infinity, Ananta. A Lotus vine is draped across him which connects to the story where a lotus grew from his naval as he slept which eventually opened to reveal Brahma, the god of creation.
- At top of image, Brahma is seated on a lotus flower flanked by other deities to witness the event
- The figures in a row at the base are personifications of Vishnus weapons, stopping to demons on the left from attacking Vishnu as he sleeps
- Vishnu’s broad, round shoulders and smooth chest, and oval face indicate that this was created in the Gupta style
Portrait of Augustus as general (imperator)
1st century CE (copy of bronze original ca. 20 BCE)
Primaporta, Italy
Material - marble
Provides a contrapossto stance and idealized/youthful features resemble Polykleito’s Doryphoros. This greek classical ideal means that Augustus was never represented as old despite the fact that he lived into his 70s. Even though he shows idealized features, he still has distinctive features such as his facial features (i.e. nose) and hair style which identify him as Augustus and depart form the generic ideal that Doryphoros shows.
The Statue would have originally been painted which would have added more details. Cupid, god of love and desire, and the dolphin at Augustus’s feet are subtle references to Cupid’s mother, Venus (goddess of love), who was born from the sea, and from whom Augustus was supposed to descend.
His breast plate shows images such as the central image of a roman soldier receiving a roman legionary standard from a Parthian which was a symbol of rome’s political victory over the Parthians, all of which were reminders of Augustus’ cultural renewal.
Overall the image shows the peace and abundance brought by Augustus’ reign believed to be sanctioned by the gods
Altar of Augustan Peace
13-9 BCE
Rome, Italy
Another example of Augustus’ ideological program for cultural renewal, this multicolor open air altar was commissioned by the senate would have been oriented to the cardinal directions. The altar was dedicated to Pax (Roman goddess of peace) and set up on a podium and surrounded by walls that held reliefs on the inside of ox skulls (representative of the sacrifices that would have been made to the gods here) and on the outside there were 2 large registered separated by a roman key pattern.
The lower register is vegetal (shows plants) with acanthus which represent abundance and order
The upper register shows figures with both historical and mythical propaganda which supported a positive view of Augustus.
Mithras Slaying the Bull
ca. 170 CE
At the Mithraeum at Dura-Europos
Dura-Europos was a city in West Asia that boasted an incredible diversity of religions, including Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, and Mithraism and more. This image of Mithras slaying the bull is part of the Mithraeum that resided underground at Dura-Europos. This scene depicts Mithras (the deity worshiped in Mithraism) killing the cosmic bull to release justice into the world.
Mithras is shown in hierarchical scale which emphasizes his importance in the violent act of slitting the bull’s throat. The Patron of this piece is identified as a figure to the right named Zenobius who is seen making a sacrifice to Mithras. This piece also signifies the importance of lineage as Zenobius’ descendants are depicted at the beside and below the altar.
Consecration of the tabernacle
ca. 245 CE
At a synagog at Dura-Europos
A mural decorates the interior walls of the synagog at Dura-Europa, with 28 panels arranged in 3 different registers delineating stories from the Hebrew bible which portrayed the Jewish history, faith, and laws. The western wall contains a niche where the Torah was kept, above which a painting depicts the consecration of the tabernacle (the portable earthly home of God during the Jewish people’s 40 yr journey to the promised land), inside of which a menorah and the ark of the covenant (where the original tablets that showed the 10 commandments were written)
Aaron, the first Jewish great priest, is represented to the tabernacle’s left with opulent robes and greek lettering spelling out his name.
Fresco on cubiculum vault in the Catacomb of Sts Peter and Marcellinus
4th Century CE
Rome
Roman Christians buried their dead in catacombs (underground tunnels with hollows to hold the dead) which contained depictions of narratives intended to help onlookers remember key moments in the past and link it to prophetic future events through representations of many religious symbols and sacred persons.
In the center of this peace, a medallion represents christ as the Good Shepherd. The circular space is surrounded by 4 lunettes depicting the story of Jonah (early story of rebirth)
The Dome of the Rock + Al-Aqsa Mosque
ca. 691-92 (Umayyad period)
Jerusalem, Israel
Perhaps the first major work of Islamic Art, this monument is the 3rd most holy site in Islam (after the Ka’ba in Mecca and the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina), this was originally the site where the 2nd Jewish Temple once stood. It is built around a Rock that is sacred to both Jewish and Islamic faith as the Rock where Abraham was prepared to sacrifice his son and where Muhammad was said to ascend to the heavens. It is decorated with marble columns and glass mosaics which depict common Byzantine motifs such as foliage, jewelry, and winged crowns. There is an arabic inscription in gold mosaic of Qur’anic passages which emphasize the differences between Islam and Christianity (Islam, God has no Son, and there is a pointed reference to Jesus that does not deny his existence as a profit but negates his role as the son of God.)
The Great Mosque of Damascus
ca. 715 (Umayyad Period)
Syria
Built on a site originally occupied by a Byzantine Church, the great mosque boasts many common architectural elements of mosques, such as a spacious courtyard, an ablution fountain, covered prayer hall (w/ a facade that looks to the courtyard), a hypostyle hall (lrg room w/ pillars supporting the roof) with a gabled roof that leads to the main mihrab (prayer niche) + minbar (pulpit where sermon was given) located on the qibla wall (wall indicating the direction of prayer). There were also multiple minarets which served as a place to call to worship and also a visible sign on the skyline of the mosque.
Mosaic w/ lion and gazelles, from a reception hall in bathhouse
c. 724-44 (Umayyad Period)
Khirbat al Mafjar, Near Jericho
The caliph would have been seated atop this mosaic, which would have implied the caliph’s power to those who came to meet him. It was placed at the apse end of the small room. Those who met with the caliph would have been able to look at the mosaic and wonder which type of gazelle they were, those that could eat peacefully and those that were taken down by the mighty lion, a common symbol for rulers. The tassels that surround the image make it look as if it was a textile or a rug.
Rhinoceros from burial at Mapungubwe
ca. 1000 CE
South Africa
This piece was made from multiple sheets of gold fastened a wooden core with small nails. The animal almost has an appearance of an armored vehicle, and its head is lowered as if ready to charge. These give the animal a powerful symbolism and would have been a suitable metaphor for a royal leader. It was from a burial site at Mapungubwe, and the accurate depiction of a rhino despite the fact that there were no similar looking creatures native to this region indicates that there may have been an exchange of information or that the piece was created somewhere else and imported.
Great Zimbabwe
1250-1400 BCE
Ancestral Shona, Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe is a term linked to royal residences and stone enclosures, and each was a residence of a king whose connection to previous divine rulers were believed to give him supernatural power and political authority. There are many artifacts that indicate that the kingdom traded goods over long distances including iron gongs and copper crosses from central Africa, beads from South Asia, and Porcelain from East Asia. This structure was built without mortar and is therefore an example of dry masonry, using blocks of granite that were smoothed and carefully stacked together. The exterior walls were very tall (up to 36 ft high), while interior walls divided different rooms such as meeting halls, thatched dwellings, and throne rooms. There were conical structures that mirrored what have been used to store crops, and were likely symbols of the rulers ability to provide rainfall for abundant harvests.
Royal emblem in the form of a fish eagle
1250-1400
Ancestral Shona, Zimbabwe
Found in one of the dwellings believed to be for the king’s wife or sister, this post was found that depicts a crocodile (which resides in the deep where it is said the spirits of dead rulers rest) climbing up towards zigzagging lines representing lightning, round circles that may represent vigilant owl eyes. On top there is a fish eagle capable of hunting down fish from the water quickly (likely the speed is connected to the depiction of lightning) The eagle is a representation of this king, whose prayers bring together the water in pools and water in clouds.
Figure of an Oni
1250-1350
Ife, Nigeria, Ancestral Yoruba
Shows the importance of beaded crowns and roual attire like the two pendants hanging over a breastplate, which would have shown the person’s status as an Oni. The figure holds a hammer-like scepter and an animal horn full of medicinal materials.
The figure boasts a full stomach (an indication that the king is well fed and prosperous) and a disproportionately large head (said to be the location of one’s character and the source of a person’s effective power or strength)
The Great Mosque at Djenne
ca. 1300
Inland Niger Delta, Mali
The center of the community at Djenne, this mosque is the largest adobe building in the world. There are the typical architectual features of mosques (large open courtyard, qibla wall with 3 minarets, larger prayer hall supported by arches. Each minaret is topped tih a rounded ostrich egg, and the walls have wooden projections that were said to transmit supernatural forces in addition to serving as scaffolding
Church of St. George
ca. 1200 (Zagwe dynasty)
Lalibala Ethiopia
A church carved into the bedrock and out of the ground forming a cross-shaped structure. There are windows and a door, as well as an interior space with a vaulted ceiling with a shallow dome. The top of the roof is flat and in line with the ground, so you must travel down in order to reach the church. There is very little room for worshipers inside the church, so many people would have been able to stand above the church around the opening. The church is a sculptural focus for celebrations of the christian faith and it would have been used to store christian relics such as crosses, manuscripts, and musical instruments used during annual celebrations.
Borobudur
ca. 750-850 (Shailendra dynasty)
Java, Indonesia
The Largest Buddhist monument in the world that is an open-air structure built on a natrual hill, which makes it visible from incredible distances. It has a base and 8 upper levels (5 sqyare terraces and 3 round ones) capped by a large stupa. This was a site of pradakshina, with stairs allowing pilgrims to ascend and circle each level and look at the many statues (504) of the Buddha that look outward from niches.
Numerology played a key role in the construction of this monument, with the number 8 which represents infinity and 108/10008 being an auspicious number in Hindu-Buddhist belief system. Multiples of these numbers recur throughout this structure, such as the 1008 buddhas represented.
Angkor Wat
ca. 1113-45 (Khmer dynasty)
Angkor, Cambodia
Angkor served as the capital of the Khmer Empire for almost 600 yrs, and was originally a huge city. Angkor Wat is monumental and dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu. It reflects the mountain cosmic Mount Meru, with 5 towers (like 5 peaks) and a surrounding moat (representing the cosmic ocean). The interior is composed of 3 concentric rectangular enclosures meant for circumambulations. It contains the churning of the sea of milk relief which is a creation myth that thematizes the triumph of good over evil.
Churning of the Sea of Milk
ca. 1113-45 (Khmer dynasty)
Angkor Wat, Cambodia
Stone relief depicting a creation myth where gods (devas) and antigods (asuras) work together to churn the cosmic ocean to obtain the elixir of life. They do this by pulling on the 5 headed naga king who acts as a rope, and mount mandara is the churn. Cishnu is represented at the center twice, both as a turtle and his 4 armed human form in front of the mountain. Indra, the king of gods, saves the world by collecting the elixir and stopping the gods from obtaining it. This relief is so large that it cannot be observed all at once, and the relief was divided into 3 levels to provide visual coherence.
Justinian Defending the Faith
mid 6th century
This carving depicts a military conquest, as Justinian rides a horse (similar to equestrian portraits of Greco-Roman rulers)with a royal standard planted in front of his defeated enemy. A winged figure of Victory hovers on a globe, as a personified earth sits below Justinian’s horse. On the left a soldier brings a trophy of victory. In the register above, divine sanction appears through the central figure of christ placed between angels to bless Justinian’s conquest. At the bottom register, pagans and barbarians are represented. Likely an opulent gift to an imperial supported, with ivory being a precious material.
Hagia Sophia
532-37 CE
Istanbul, Turkey
Part of a restoration program to fix Istanbul following Nike revolt, Hagia Sophia was built on the site of a previous chuch by Anthemius and Isidorus who used mathmatical purity and simplicity w/ complex engineering to support the dome and give the roof an illusion of being suspended from the heavens. Uses pendentives to help reinforce the dome to keep it from collapsing.
This church provided visible evidence of the emperor’s power and fusing political with religious authority. The walls are covered in gilded mosaics, which allow light to bounce off of it creating an illuminating effect.
The Crucifixion with iconoclasts from the Khuldov Psalter
ca. 850-75
Iconoclasm rejected the use of religious representations of figures were icons and bad. After the fall of Iconoclasm, Khludov Psalter was created which was a codex that called attention to the impious folly of icon destruction. On one page there was an inscribed verse along side an illustration from Christ’s Crucifixion showing soldiers mocking Christ offering a vinegar soaked sponge to quench his thirst. Below there is a connection to the Bishop of Constantinople, who uses vinegar to try and erase a sacred icon of Christ. Equates erasing Christ’s image to committing an act of violence against God
Anastasis, Church of Our Savior in Chora
1316-21
Istanbul, Turkey
Christ is depicted within a mandorla (halo that spans the body) and releases Adam and Eve from their tombs (represents triumph of grace over death/light over darkness) This intervention by Christ is witnessed by saints to the viewers left and represents Christ’s power over hell through Satan as a captive below Christ.
Sarcophagus lid, from tomb of Pakal
ca. 683
Temple of the Inscriptions, Palenque Mexico
Covering Pakal’s (king central to Mayan history) body. Depicts Pakal at the center in the guise of the Maize God (wearing beaded net skirt and elaborate necklace). Shown from the side emerging from the jaws of the underworld (Pakal also personified as the maize plant). Shown against cross motif that symbolized a central sacred trea, which were immovable and eternal guarantors of the orientation and shape of forests/cosmos. Atop the tree is a sacred bird that represents the sky.
Temple of Kukulkan
c. 850-1000
Chichén Itzá, Mexico
Kukulkan was a feathered serpent deity associated w/ life-giving rains of the spring and the onset of death in the fall. The temple has 9 levels (corresponds to Mesoamerican perception of the underworld). The shadow of the sides creates the shape of a serpent during the spring and fall equinoxes and lines up with the serpent heads carved at the base of the stares.
Chocolate vessel with palace scene
ca. 600-900 CE
Maya
May have been used to hold the whipped chocolate drink favored by the elite maya (seen in an image of one of the seated figures drinking from these receptical). The ruler is enthroned and cross-legged, flanked by attendants offering food and crossing his arms as a sign of loyalty. The top row of hieroglyphs record the owner of the vessel and note that he was a leading athlete skilled in mesoamerican ball game, which is represented by the yoke represented on the right. This piece was signed which indicates that artists held a certain amount of status, and the recepticle did at one point hold food
Waist Yoke
ca. 100-1000 (Classic Veracruz)
This was an effigy (model) of ball-game equipment that would have been worn to protect the hips of the players. The skill and traits needed to play the game were associated with nobility. The yoke takes a form of a crouching toad with large almond-shaped eyes and a lolling rectangular tongue. The toad’s legs are depicted in a crouch on the long sides of the yoke. Ball game is associated with miraculous springs and agricultural fertility
Great Serpent Mound
ca. 1070
Ohio
An earthen mound built through the painstaking process of bringing baskets of earth and compacting it (known as rammed earth construction). May have been used as stages for performing sacred rites and as burial places for important ancestors. Interesting, like the nasca lines, this piece would not have been able to be fully appreciated on the ground, and instead modern technology is needed for a birds-eye-view. (may have been meant for the gods). May have been made to commemorate Halley’s Comet, as no burials were found and recent theories state that it may have been an astronomical observatory.
Folio from the Blue Qur’an from Tunisia
ca. 850-950 (Abbasid period)
One of the most lavish Qur’an ever made, it wouldn’t have been used for actual scripture readings because of the lack of diacritical marks length of the book, stretched because of the decorative and exaggerated calligraphy. The pages are dyed a brilliant blue, with gold lettering and silver decorative circles indicating a new chapter.
Tomb of Uljaytu
ca. 1305-14 (Ilkhanid dynasty)
Sultaniyya, Iran
Located at a summer capital of the Ilkhanid dynasty, this massive tomb is decorated with a pointed dome covered in glazed turquoise tiles. had Qur’anic inscriptions in the interior tiles and gilded stucco that pertained to pilgrimage and was renovated in 1316 adding an expanded monument to better support pilgrimage. match is conversion from Sunni to Shi’ism (Sects of Islam).
Bahram Gur fights the King, folio from the Great Ilkhanid Shahnama
ca. 1330s (Ilkhanid dynasty)
Tabriz, Iran
Manuscript made to link the Ilkhanids to Persian culture. The text was also called the book of Kings, and it is considered the national epic of Iran as it combines history and legend. Figures in images show emotion, and scene is very detailed, with rich pigments. Influenced from Chinese art.
Ex. depiction of Sasanian prince, Bahram Gur, having slain a horned wolf-like monster called the Karg (Rhino).
Complex of Sultan Hasan
1356-62, Mamluk dynasty
Cairo
The biggest, most expensive institute built over a palace that had been built just 30 years before. Contained many different public buildings, including Sultan Hasan’s tomb, a mosque, a school for orphans, a kitchen, a hospital, a dispensary for drinking water, baths, and a covered bazaar with shops. The main portal was huge and surrounded by monumental minarets (one of which sadly collapsed and killed many school children).
Epitomizes Mamluk style in its layout, responds to wider cityscape and combines aspects of Persian and Ilkhanid architecture. Employs light to enhance the viewer’s experience by using honeycomb design to creat patterns of light and shadow.
Lamp from Complex of Sultan Hasan
ca. 1360 (Mamluk Dynasty)
Cairo, Egypt
Made of gilded and enameled glass, these lamps would have been filled with oil and suspended from the ceiling. The deocrations include inscriptions naming Sultan Hasan as well as a verse from a Qur’anic chapter that connected god with light.
Roger II Crowned by Christ
Santa Maria dell’Ammiraglio (the Martorana)
1146/47-51 CE
Palermo
Roger II was the ruler of the Kingdom of Sicily
Cappella Palatina Carved Ceiling
ca. 1140-70
Palermo, Sicily
The church was commissioned by Roger II and combines a basilica plan with the cross-in-square design and depicts Christ as the Pantocrator offering his blessing. Though much of the church appears Byzantine in style, the cedar ceiling follows Fatimid-style carvings through its star shaped panels framed by muqarnas (alternating convex and concave decorations that give a illusion). The carving is suspended from the base of trusses and contains Kufic inscriptions and decorated with vegetal and zoomorphic motifs along side the enthroned Norman king attending a banquet - intertwining his earthly reign with the joys of heaven.
Coronation mantle of Roger II
ca. 1133/34
Sicily
Composed of silk, gold/silver threads, jewels, and pearls, this opulent and weighting mantel displays a central palm tree indicating continuity and growth of life flanked on either side by lions attacking camels. This symbolizes regal power over those who arrived in Sicily from North Africa, which would have crumpled on the floor when the mantel was worn.
Nave of Chartres Cathedral
rebuilt after 1194
Chartres, France
An example of gothic architecture, this site was home to a prized relic (what was believed to be the tunic of the Virgin) which made it a popular pilgrimage site. The portals in particular, show gothic style through their emphasis on decorative figures sculpted into the columns and pointed arches.
The nave housed a large labyrinth inlayed into the stone, which may have functioned as a means for imaginative or spiritual pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Chartres is organized according to a belief in the purity of mathematical relations, following simple ratios between height and width.
