FINAL LECTURE EXAM Flashcards
- Digestive System - Urinary/ Renal System - Male Reproductive System - Female Reproductive System - Embryonic Development
1
Q
What are the functions of the digestive system?
A
1) Ingestion
2) Digestion
3) Absorption
4) Elimination
2
Q
What type of digestion is this?
- Physically breaking down food
- Begins with chewing
A
Mechanical Digestion
3
Q
What type of digestion is this?
- Breaking down large molecules into smaller ones
- Begins with cooking food
A
Chemical Digestion
4
Q
One open tract/tube from the mouth to the anus
A
Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract
5
Q
What are the accessory organs?
A
liver, pancreas, gallbladder
6
Q
What is peristalsis?
A
one-way movement of food
7
Q
What is segmentation?
A
back-and-forth movement of food
8
Q
Is segmentation chemical or mechanical digestion?
A
mechanical
9
Q
What tissue is the oral cavity lined with and why?
A
non-keratinized stratified squamous ET to protect from abrasion
10
Q
What type of muscle is the tongue made of?
A
skeletal muscle
11
Q
What are the 3 salivary glands?
A
1) parotid
2) sublingual
3) submandibular
12
Q
What are the functions of saliva?
A
1) produces lysosome to kill bacteria
2) lubricates food
3) contains amylase to digest starch
13
Q
We have 32 adult teeth and 20 deciduous teeth.
___ incisors
___ canine teeth
___ bicuspid teeth
___ molars
A
12 incisors
4 canine teeth
8 bicuspid teeth
12 molars
14
Q
What tissue is the gingiva made of?
A
non-keratinized stratified squamous ET
15
Q
What is the strongest substance in the body?
A
enamel
16
Q
What type of tissue is dentin made of?
A
bone tissue
17
Q
What is the function of periodontal ligaments?
A
connect the tooth to the socket
18
Q
What is the esophageal hiatus?
A
the hole the esophagus goes through to get through the diaphragm
19
Q
What are the functions of the stomach?
A
1) stores food
2) mechanical digestion
3) chemical digestion for proteins
3) kills bacteria
20
Q
Why doesn’t the cardiac sphincter close completely?
A
to allow for vomiting
21
Q
Which part of the stomach only gets filled if you eat a lot?
A
fundus
22
Q
What part of the stomach controls what goes into the small intestine?
A
pyloric sphincter
23
Q
What is the top of the small intestine called?
A
duodenum
24
Q
What are rugae and what is their function?
A
- folds of the stomach
- stretch out and provide surface area
25
What are the functions of gastric pits?
Produce HCl, new cells, and hormones
26
What is the mucosal epithelium in the stomach made of and why?
simple columnar ET made entirely of goblet cells which produce mucus to protect from stomach acid
27
What type of muscle is the muscularis externa in the stomach made of? What is its function?
- smooth muscle
- peristalsis and segmentation to produce chyme
28
What are the functions of the small intestine?
1) digestion
2) absorption
29
What are the 3 parts of the small intestine?
1) duodenum
2 jejunum
3) ileum
30
What is the function of the duodenum?
- neutralizes stomach acid
- receives secretions from the accessory organs
31
What is the function of the jejunum?
- where most digestion occurs (chemical and mechanical)
32
What is the function of lymph nodes in the ileum?
to protect from bacteria
33
What does the ileum absorb?
everything but water and lipids
34
What are plique circularis?
What are they synonymous with?
- big folds in the small intestine
- rugae in the stomach
35
What is the function of villi in the small intestine?
increase surface area
36
What are microvilli in the small intestine?
individual cells that sit on top of villi
37
What are the functions of the large intestine?
1) stores feces
2) absorbs water and lipids
38
What are the functions of bacteria in the large intestine?
1) protect from disease
2) produce essential vitamins (Vitamin K)
3) reduce inflammation
39
What is the function of the hepatic artery?
to bring oxygenated blood from the heart
40
What is the function of the hepatic portal vein?
carries blood from the digestive system to get filtered in the liver
41
What do the hepatic veins empty into?
inferior vena cava
42
What is the only organ in the body that regenerates?
liver
43
What are the functions of the liver?
1) Makes bile
2) Makes cholesterol
3) Detoxifies poisons in blood
4) Makes all blood proteins except for antibodies
5) Removes old erythrocytes
44
What is the function of bile and how does it work?
- emulsifies fat
- acts as a surfactant to break up fat
45
What is the function of the gallbladder?
stores and concentrates extra bile
46
What does the common bile duct empty into?
the duodenum at the sphincter of oddi
47
What things make up the hepatic portal triad?
1) arteriole
2) venule
3) bile duct
48
What are heptaic sinusoids and their function?
- discontinuous capillaries
- remove old erythrocytes
49
What is the function of hepatocytes?
make bile from hemoglobin, bilirubin, and cholesterol
50
What are Kupffer Cells and their functions?
- macrophages
- destroy erythrocytes and release hemoglobin
51
What organs does the peritoneal cavity contain?
stomach, liver, intestines
52
Where is the retroperitoneal cavity located and what does it contain?
- behind the peritoneal cavity
- kidneys
53
Where is the infraperitoneal cavity and what does it contain?
- below the peritoneal cavity
- uterus and bladder
54
What is the function of the Lesser Omentum?
connects the liver to the stomach
55
What is the function of the Greater Omentum?
connects the stomach to the transverse colon
56
What is a mesentary?
what comes off the parietal peritoneum to attach it to the visceral peritoneum
57
What are caries?
How do they occur?
What can they become?
- areas of enamel being broken down
- food gets stuck in teeth → bacteria enter and produce acids which degrade the enamel
- can become cavities without regular brushing
58
What is a cavity and how is it treated?
- a carie that continues growing
- treated with a filling
59
What is a root canal and how is it treated?
- occurs when bacteria enters the pulp of the tooth
- treated by getting cleaned. filled, and crowned
60
What is gingivitis and how does it occur?
What can it lead to?
- inflammation of the gingiva
- occurs when bacteria gets between the tooth and gums
- can lead to periodontitis if untreated
61
Periodontitis is the leading cause of tooth loss. What is it?
When you start to lose periodontal ligaments
62
What is a gastric ulcer?
How can it cause internal bleeding?
What is it caused by?
- when stomach acid burns a hole in the lining of the stomach
- ET gets destroyed so the underlying CT is exposed, which contains many blood vessels
- normally caused by an infection
63
What is a hiatal hernia?
What causes it?
Signs and symptoms?
- occurs when the stomach pops through the esophagus
- caused by elastic fibers in the diaphragm weakening with age
- presents with bad heartburn and acid reflux
64
What is diarrhea?
when peristalsis occurs too quickly, resulting in watery feces
65
What is constipation?
when peristalsis occurs too slowly, resulting in not enough water in feces
66
What is appendicitis and how is it treated?
- inflammation of the appendix, it closes its opening
- treated with an appendectomy
67
What is peritonitis and how is it treated?
- occurs when the appendix bursts and bacteria enters the peritoneal cavity
- can be fatal
- treated by flushing the peritoneal cavity with antibiotics
68
What is diverticulitis?
Signs and symptoms?
- inflammation of diverticula
- presents with pain, constipation or diarrhea, and cramping
69
What are diverticula?
- small pouches all over the colon (LI)
- they have large openings so they don't burst
- not all people have them
70
What is colitis?
What causes it?
Examples?
- inflammation of the colon
- most cases are autoimmune, some are due to an imbalance of bacteria in the colon
- Chron's Disease and IBS
71
Why is colon cancer becoming the deadliest form of cancer?
because lung cancer is less prevalent
72
What is a colonoscopy?
- how colon cancer is prevented
- the colon is checked for polyps, they are removed if found
73
How is colon cancer detected?
through a fecal sample which checks for cancerous cells
74
What are gallstones?
Why are they so painful?
Treatment?
- concentrated bile that forms crystals
- painful because they block the cystic duct
- treated by removing the gallbladder
75
What causes jaundice?
anything that damages the liver
76
What is neonatal jaundice?
Treatment?
- yellowing of the skin due to bile being released in blood
- occurs when the liver can't keep up with the amount of erythrocytes
- treated with phototherapy → the UV fixes the yellowing of the skin
77
What is cirrhosis and how does it occur?
What is it caused by?
- when liver tissue is replaced with scar tissue
- occurs when liver lobules get damaged due to an overuse of toxins or hepatitis
- the liver can't regenerate in areas with scar tissue
78
What are the functions of the liver?
1) filters blood and removes wastes in urine
2) regulates ion concentration → regulates blood pH
3) Regulates the amount of water in blood
79
What is the function of the ureters?
What tissue are they made of and why?
What is the function of the muscularis externa?
- drain kidneys
- transitional ET for stretch
- allows for peristalsis which prevents urine from backing up into the kidneys
80
What is the function of the urinary bladder?
What is the trigone?
What tissue is it made of and why?
- what the ureters empty into
- the triangular base of the bladder
- transitional ET for stretch
81
What is the detrusor muscle and what type of muscle is it?
- smooth muscle that starts contracting as the bladder fills
- involuntary, gives you the urge to urinate
82
What is the function of the urethra?
How long is the female urethra?
How long is the male urethra?
- drains the urinary bladder
- 4cm
- 20cm
83
What type of muscle is the internal urethral sphincter made of?
- smooth muscle (involuntary)
84
What type of muscle is the external urethral sphincter made of?
- skeletal muscle (voluntary)
85
What is the function of the renal capsule?
What tissue is it made of?
- physically protects kidney
- dense irregular connective tissue
86
What is the function of the adipose capsule in the kidney?
cushions kidney
87
What is the function of renal fascia?
What tissue is it made of?
- anchors kidney to surrounding structures
- moderately dense CT
88
What is the function of the renal cortex?
filters blood
89
What is the function of the renal column?
What is it continuous with?
- separates renal pyramids
- continuous with the renal cortex
90
What is the function of the renal medulla?
What is it organized into?
- contains urine concentration
- organized into renal pyramids
91
What is the function of the renal calyx and renal pelvis?
funnels urine out
92
What is the function of the ureter?
drains urine
93
What type of capillary is the glomerulus?
fenestrated capillary
94
What tissue is the Bowman's Capsule made of?
simple squamous ET
95
In the glomerulus, __________ have feet that interlink.
podocytes
96
What are filtration slits in the glomerulus?
What can't get through them?
- the spaces between podocytes
- larger things like RBCs, WBCs, platelets, and hormones
97
What are the functions of the Glomerulus?
Removes plasma, protein, ions, nutrients, wastes, and more from blood
98
What is Glomerular Ultrafiltrate?
what eventually becomes urine
99
What is the function of the Proximal Convoluted Tubule in a nephron?
What tissue is it made of?
- reabsorbs nutrients, travels with water
- simple cuboidal ET with microvilli
100
In a nephron, Loops of Henle are part of the vasa recta.
What is the function of the Descending Limb? What tissue is it made of?
What is the function of the Ascending Limb? What tissue is it made of?
- reabsorbs water, simple squamous ET
- reabsorbs ions, simple cuboidal ET
101
What is the function of the Distal Convoluted Tubule in a nephron?
What tissue is made of?
- perfects urine
- simple cuboidal ET
102
Reabsorption and secretion in the distal convoluted tubule are under the influence of __________.
hormones
103
- the functional unit of the kidney
- where we filter blood and concentrate urine
nephron
104
What is glomerulonephritis?
What causes it?
- inflammation that occurs when the glomerulus gets clogged
- too much protein in blood (from too many antibodies or tearing muscles)
105
What are kidney stones?
Causes?
- crystals that form in the kidneys
- calcium crystals are most common
- leading cause is dehydration
106
What are the 2 ways kidney stones are treated?
1) Lithotripsy → ultrasound waves break the crystal(s) into smaller pieces so they can be passed
2) Stent: a wire mesh is placed in the ureters so the crystal(s) can be passed
107
Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is the leading cause for kidney transplants. What is it?
Causes?
- when the kidney gets covered in cysts
- genetic
108
What is hemodialysis?
- when blood is filtered using an external membrane
- a treatment for when the kidneys begin to fail
109
What is hemodialysis?
- when blood is filtered using an external membrane
- a treatment for when the kidneys begin to fail
110
What is peritoneal dialysis?
when the peritoneal cavity is filled with fluid, then drained
111
Where does a bladder infection start?
What is the most common cause?
What happens if it goes untreated?
- starts at the trigone
- most start as UTIs
- can move up the ureter to the kidney if untreated
112
What are the 2 reasons women are more prone to UTIs?
1) the female urethra is so close to the anus
2) the female urethra is only 4cm
113
What is a catheter?
What does it prevent?
In what situations should a catheter be used?
- a tube that keeps the urethra open so urine can drain out
- prevents the bladder from bursting
- coma, surgery, epidural
114
What are the functions of the male reproductive system?
1) produce sperm
2) deliver sperm
115
What is the function of the capsule in the testis?
What tissue is it made of?
- encapsulates each testis
- dense irregular CT
116
What is the function of seminiferous tubules?
What tissue are they made of?
- make sperm
simple columnar ET
117
What is the function of sustentacular cells in the seminiferous tubules?
produce sperm
118
What is the function of interstitial cells in the seminiferous tubules?
make testosterone
119
What is the function of acrosome in the head of a sperm?
contains digestive enzymes to penetrate the egg
120
What is the function of mitochondria in the midpiece of a sperm?
produces energy so the sperm can swim
121
What is the function of the flagellum of a sperm?
allows the sperm to swim
122
What structure connects the testis to the skin?
gubernaculum
123
The testes are fully descended _______ after birth.
1 month
124
What muscle is responsible for lifting or lowering the testes to keep them at the perfect temperature?
Cremaster Muscle
125
What is the tube connecting the testis to the urethra?
Vas Deferens
126
What is the blood vessel that brings blood down to the testes?
Testicular Artery
127
What is the blood vessel that cools blood coming down to the testes?
Hint: testicular vein
Pampiniform Plexus
128
- Where sperm are stored and mature
- Sperm that has been sitting for too long gets reabsorbed here
epididymis
129
Sperm only goes through the ___________ during ejaculation.
Vas Deferens
130
- Tissue that fills with blood and becomes rigid
- Both males and female genitalia have this
erectile tissue
131
Why is the Corpus Spongiosum slightly softer than the Corpora Cavernosa?
so the urethra doesn't close during an erection
132
Where does the ejaculatory duct receive secretions from?
seminal vesicle and prostate gland
133
_________ + _________ = semen
seminal fluid + sperm
134
What are the 3 glands of the male reproductive system?
1) seminal vesicle
2) prostate gland
3) bulbourethral gland
135
What is the function of the seminal vesicle?
makes sperm and seminal fluid
136
What is the function of the prostate gland?
makes seminal fluid
137
What is the function of the bulbourethral gland?
releases a lubricant into the urethra before ejaculation
138
During an erection, _________ dilate and _________ constrict during arousal.
After arousal, _________ drain blood.
- arterioles dilate and venules constrict
- venules drain blood
139
What are undescended testes?
Treatment?
- when the testes don't descend correctly
- fixed with surgery
140
What is an inguinal hernia?
Causes?
Treatment?
- when the small intestine gets stuck in the inguinal canal
- caused by overworking muscles
- treated with surgery
141
What is testicular tortion?
Causes?
Treament?
- when the testis spins in the scrotum, twisting the spermatic cord
- caused by movement and a sudden change in temperature
- treated with surgery
142
What is variocele?
Causes?
- varicose veins in the pampiniform plexus
- occurs as elastic fibers weaken
- no signs or symptoms
143
Why is variocele the leading cause of male infertility?
because the pampiniform plexus can no longer cool the testicular artery
144
What is the most common form of cancer for men in their twenties?
testicular cancer
145
Why is the prostate gland cancer prone?
How is prostate cancer diagnosed?
Signs and symptoms?
- because it never stops growing
- rectal exam
- presents with difficulty urinating
146
What is circumcision?
a procedure that cuts off the prepuce
147
Erectile dysfunction drugs are classified as arteriole dilators. How can they result in necrosis of the penis?
If arterioles stay dilated for too long → blood doesn't drain → lack of oxygen
148
What happens with a broken penis?
Cause?
Treatment?
- the capsule(s) break
- leading cause is intercourse
- treated with surgery
149
What are the functions of the female reproductive system?
1) egg maturation and ovulation
2) gestation
3) childbirth
150
What is the function of ovaries?
What hormones do they produce?
- mature eggs
- estrogen and progesterone
151
Ovaries are located in the ____________________________.
peritoneal cavity
152
In the ovary, where does egg maturation occur?
cortex
153
In the ovary, what tissue is the medulla made of?
areolar CT
154
In the ovary, what tissue is the capsule made of?
dense irregular CT
155
The mesovarium in the ovary is equivalent to the __________ peritoneum.
visceral
156
Fallopian tubes are where fertilization occurs. What is their function?
What tissue are they made of?
- to move the egg from the ovary to the uterus
- pseudostratified columnar ET with cilia
157
What is the function of fimbriae?
to catch the egg and sweep it into the fallopian tube
158
What is the distal third?
the location of fertilization (in fallopian tube)
159
What are the 3 layers of the uterus? In order from deep to superficial.
1) Perimetrium
2) Myometrium
3) Endometrium
160
What is the function of the myometrium in the uterus?
smooth muscle that is responsible for contractions and labor
161
The endometrium is comprised of 2 layers. What are they and what tissue are they made of?
1) Stratum Basale → moderately dense areolar CT
2) Stratum Functionale → areolar CT that grows in response to hormones
162
What tissue is the vagina made of and why?
Non-keratinized stratified squamous ET with rugae for stretch
163
Secretions from the vagina actually come from the ___________ in the uterus.
What are the 2 types of secretions?
- stratum functionale
- acid secretions and discharge
164
A component of the vulva, what are the outer folds?
Equivalent to the scrotum.
Labia Majora
165
A component of the vulva, what are the inner folds?
What tissue are they made of?
Equivalent to the Corpora Cavernosa and Corpus Spongiosum.
- Labia Minora
- Erectile Tissue
166
The labia minora meet at the _____.
Equivalent to the glans penis.
Clitoris
167
The Vestibule is the space within the Labia Minora. What does it contain?
- urethra
- vagina
- vestibular gland
168
What is the membrane covering the vagina at birth?
hymen
169
What is the function of the vestibular gland in the female reproductive system?
What gland is it equivalent to in the male reproductive system?
- releases lubrication during sex
- equivalent to the bulbourethral gland
170
The Corpus Luteum releases estrogen and progesterone which affect ________ and _________.
secondary sexual characteristics and the uterus
171
The corpus luteum dies to become the _____________ unless pregnancy occurs.
corpus albicans
172
Women are born with about 450,000 primordial follicles which consist of:
- Primary Oocyte
- Follicular Cells
What is the function of both?
- Primary Oocyte → the egg
- Follicular Cells → support and nourish the egg
173
A muscle of the pelvic floor, what is the function of the bulbospongiosus muscle?
- acts as a urethral muscle for peristalsis
- helps you urinate
174
A muscle of the pelvic floor, what is the function of the Urogenital (UG) Diaphragm?
- acts as a urethral sphincter
- helps close the urethra when you aren't urinating
175
A muscle of the pelvic floor, what is the function of the Levator Ani?
- allows for defacation
- lifts up the sigmoid colon
176
All muscles of the pelvic floor share this tendon so if it tears, none of them will work.
Central Tendon of Perineum
177
What occurs with fraternal twins?
- 2 eggs are released but fertilized separately by different sperm
- the eggs get ovulated at the same time
- 2 trophoblasts with 1 inner cell mass each, different placentas
178
What is an ectopic pregnancy?
a pregnancy that occurs anywhere other than the uterus
179
A type of ectopic pregnancy, what is a tubal pregnancy?
when the egg is fertilized in the fallopian tube
180
A type of ectopic pregnancy, what is a peritoneal pregnancy?
when the egg is fertilized in the peritoneal cavity
181
How is Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) caused?
Signs and symptoms?
What happens if it goes untreated?
- typically caused by an infection
- presents with abdominal pain
- If untreated can move up the fallopian tubes and into the peritoneal cavity AND/OR cause infertility if scar tissue is formed
182
What is the female version of a vasectomy called?
Why is it a more invasive procedure than a vasectomy?
- tubal ligation
- more invasive because the procedure requires cutting into the peritoneal cavity
183
Uterine Fibroids are the leading cause of hysterectomies. What are they?
- lumps of dense irregular CT on the uterus
- extremely painful and can cause infertility
184
What is endometriosis?
What is occurring?
Signs and symptoms?
- when endometrial cells get into the peritoneal cavity
- the cells leave the uterus through the fallopian tubes, growing and shedding in response to hormones
- presents with pain in response to the menstrual cycle
185
Why is uterine cancer so common?
because the tissue grows every month
186
Why is cervical cancer so common?
Causes?
Prevention?
Detection?
- because the tissue grows every month
- leading cause is HPV
- prevented by the Gardasil Vaccine
- Detected through a pap smear
187
What occurs with a prolapsed uterus?
Causes?
Prevention?
- when the uterus is no longer held up by the pelvic floor muscles
- leading causes are old age and/or multiple childbirths
- prevented with kegel exercises
188
What occurs during fertilization?
Where does it occur?
- when one sperm gets into an egg
- occurs in the distal third of the fallopian tube
189
Immediately upon fertilization, the egg forms a fertilization membrane. What is the function of this?
Prevents other sperm from penetrating the egg
190
What occurs during embryonic cleavages?
- the egg stays the same size but its cells decrease in size as they divide
191
What is the function of the HCG hormone?
maintains the corpus luteum during pregnancy
192
What forms on day 5 of embryonic development?
blastocyst
193
What does the trophoblast of a blastocyst eventually become?
placenta
194
The inner cell mass of a blastocyst eventually becomes the ________.
What type of cells does it contain?
- embryo
- totipotent stem cells
195
What happens during implantation?
trophoblast cells invade the endometrium and form chorionic villi
196
What do chorionic villi eventually become?
What tissue are they made of and why?
- chorion and placenta
- simple squamous ET for easy diffusion
197
How does the placenta form?
when the chorion shrinks to one location
198
The umbilical cord consists of 3 blood vessels. What are they?
- Umbilical arteries (2)
- Umbilical vein (1)
199
What occurs during gastruation?
the inner cell mass divides itself into 3 layers
200
What are the primary germ layers and what do they become?
1) Ectoderm → epidermis and nervous system
2) Mesoderm → connective tissues, cardiovascular system, and more
3) Endoderm → GI tract, lungs, and renal system
201
What is the amnion?
What is it filled with?
- what the ectoderm folds into
- amniotic fluid
202
What are the functions of amniotic fluid?
suspend and cushion the embryo
203
What is the function of the yolk sac?
nourishes the embryo
204
Ontogeny Recapitulates Phylogeny is the theory that embryonic development retells evolution. Provide examples of this.
1) All vertebrate embryos are segmented
2) Branchial Arches → in fish these form gills but humans repurposed these to form certain bones
3) Between different species embryos look the same, proving that at some point we all had a common ancestor
205
In most people, the remnant of the yolk sac simply disappears. However in 2% of people, it becomes a _____________ in the small intestine.
diverticulum
206
The umbilical arteries are a branch of the ____________.
internal iliac arteries
207
The umbilical vein dumps into the ______________.
inferior vena cava
208
What is the function of the ductus arteriosus in fetal blood circulation?
connects the aorta and pulmonary trunk
209
What is the foramen ovale in fetal blood circulation?
a hole between the two atria of the heart
210
List the differences between fetal and adult blood circulation.
1) umbilical arteries
2) umbilical vein
3) ductus arteriosus
4) foramen ovale
211
What is organogenesis?
the creation of organs
212
A key part of organogenesis, what is morphogenesis?
the formation of the 3D shape of organs
213
Morphogenesis and differentiation are dependent on localization signals.
What are they?
how the body tells cells where they are
213
A key part of organogenesis, what is differentiation?
Provide an example.
- the specialization of cells
- EX) totipotent stem cells turning into cardiac muscle cells
214
Localization signals consist of chemical gradients and induction.
What is the function of chemical gradients?
to determine which cells become certain organs
215
Localization signals consist of chemical gradients and induction.
How does induction work?
cells that are in close contact with one another can communicate, telling each other to form certain organs
216
What is neurulation?
development of the nervous system
217
What is the function of the notocord in neurulation?
induces the neural tube to form and pop off
218
What is the function of the neural tube in neurulation?
pops off and forms the central nervous system
219
What is the function of neural crest cells?
pop off and form the peripheral nervous system and melanocytes
220
Cubes of mesoderm that give rise to vertebrae, muscles, ligaments, etc.
somites
221
How do limb buds develop?
mesoderm cells concentrate in areas to form cartilage → bone
222
Initially, the ectoderm forms a web around bones. What occurs to make that web go away?
apoptosis
223
What is morphological movement?
when chemical gradients and induction cause the face to wrap forward
224
What is morphological movement?
Provide an example.
- when chemical gradients and induction cause the face to wrap forward
- the philtrum forms when the two sides of the face merge
225
In the formation of external genitalia, what do the labio scrotal folds become?
labia or scrotum
226
In the formation of external genitalia, what do the urethral folds become?
urethra
227
In the formation of external genitalia, what does the genital tubercle become?
clitoris
228
Males start secreting embryonic testosterone at 6 weeks. What are the functions?
1) causes urethral folds to close
2) causes labio scrotal folds to fold together
3) causes genital tubercle to form the penis
229
The term embryo is used to describe development _________.
The term fetus is used to describe development __________.
Embryo → before 10-12 weeks
Fetus → at 10-12 weeks
230
By ________ into development, organs are in place and fully developed.
3 months
231
During vaginal birth, what does the mother's neurohypophysis start secreting?
oxytocin
232
What is the function of oxytocin during vaginal birth?
1) contracts the smooth muscle of the myometrium (of the uterus)
2) helps close arterioles in the placenta after birth
233
Explain how a positive feedback loop in the body only occurs during vaginal childbirth.
oxytocin pushes the baby on the cervix which in turn, secretes more oxytocin
234
What are the reasons why vaginal births are better for a baby than cesarean sections?
1) vaginal birth squeezes fluid out of the lungs so a baby can breathe sooner
2) a baby's microbiological biome starts with vaginal childbirth
235
What occurs during a Cesarean Section?
Rectus abdominis is cut
↓
Uterus is cut
↓
Baby is removed
236
List the 4 reasons a woman might need a Cesarean Section.
1) Transverse / breech position
2) Placenta Previa
3) Placenta Abruptio
4) Umbilical cord comes out first
237
Explain the basis of anatomical variation and provide some common examples.
- every person has a normal amount of variation in their anatomy
- renal arteries
- bile and pancreatic ducts
- situs inversis
238
What is placenta previa?
- when the placenta blocks the cervix
- prevents natural childbirth, requires a c-section
239
What is placenta abruptio?
- when the placenta detaches from the wall of the uterus before the baby is born
- requires a c-section
240
What occurs with identical twins?
- the inner cell mass of the blastocyst divides in half
- 1 trophoblast with 2 inner cell masses, they share a placenta
241
What occurs with conjoined twins?
the inner cell mass of the blastocyst doesn't divide completely
242
What is amniocentesis?
- when embryonic fluid is extracted
- how embryonic cells are tested for genetic markers
243
What is Spina Biffida?
- occurs when the notocord doesn't close posteriorly
- the spinal cord and meninges start growing out of the opening
- the spinal cord and nerves will not develop properly, inferior to the opening → this can result in a baby being born paralyzed
244
What is anencephaly?
- occurs when the notocord doesn't close anteriorly
- the top of the spinal cord doesn't form → no brain formation
- babies born with this only live a few days
245
What is a Mongolian Spot?
- forms when many neural crest cells enter the epidermis at the buttocks
- only seen in Asian and Native American populations
- Only lasts for about one year before the cells disperse evenly
246
Explain why webbed fingers/toes occur.
- when apoptosis doesn't occur and the ectodermal cells remain webbed
247
What is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome?
- causes incomplete morphological movement
- main symptom is mental problems
248
What are the physical characteristics that come with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome?
- eyes are far apart
- flat bride of nose
- no philtrum
- very wide mouth with a flat upper lip
249
What is Cleft Lip?
- when the philtrum doesn't form during morphological movement
- common with alcohol exposure during pregnancy
250
What is Cleft Palate?
- when the palate doesn't close during morphological movement
- dangerous because the oral and nasal cavities aren't separated
- requires reconstructive surgery
- common with alcohol exposure during pregnancy
251
What is hyposodias?
- when the urethral folds don't fold in correctly
- causes the urethra to be in the wrong place
- may require reconstructive surgery
252
How do incorrect levels of testosterone affect external genitalia?
- incorrect levels of testosterone can cause both male and female genitalia to form incorrectly
- requires reconstructive surgery
253
What is situs inversus?
- when all of the organs are flipped left and right
- the most significant example of anatomical variation
- does not affect function
- can be dangerous if a person doesn't know they have this and undergoes surgery
