Final Period 2 Flashcards
(36 cards)
The Scientific Revolution (1543–1700)
The Scientific Revolution marks a shift from medieval, religious-based explanations of the world to empirical, observation-based scientific thinking.
Key Figures: (Scientific Rev.)
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543):
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630):
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642):
Isaac Newton (1642–1727):
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543): Proposed the heliocentric model of the universe (Earth orbits the Sun), challenging the geocentric view supported by the Catholic Church.
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630): Formulated the laws of planetary motion, proving that planets move in elliptical orbits around the Sun.
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642): Used the telescope to confirm the heliocentric model, and discovered moons around Jupiter. His advocacy for the scientific method led to conflict with the Church.
Isaac Newton (1642–1727): Developed the laws of motion and the universal law of gravitation, explaining the physical workings of the universe in mathematical terms.
The Enlightenment (1715–1789)
The Enlightenment was a cultural movement that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism toward traditional authority, particularly the Church and absolute monarchies.
Key Thinkers and Ideas: (Enlightenment)
John Locke (1632–1704): Argued that all men have natural rights to life, liberty, and property, and that government should protect these rights. Locke believed in popular sovereignty—the idea that governments are formed by the consent of the governed.
Montesquieu (1689–1755): Advocated for separation of powers within government (executive, legislative, judicial) to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful. His work was influential in the development of modern political systems.
Voltaire (1694–1778): A vocal critic of the French monarchy and the Catholic Church, he promoted freedom of speech and religious tolerance.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778): In his work The Social Contract, Rousseau argued that government should be based on the general will (the collective interest of the people). He also introduced the idea of a direct democracy.
Denis Diderot (1713–1784): A major figure in the creation of the Encyclopédie, a massive work that sought to collect and disseminate human knowledge, especially science and philosophy.
Key Ideas of the Enlightenment:
Reason: The belief that reason and rational thought can solve human problems and improve society.
Progress: The belief that society and humanity could improve through education and the application of scientific knowledge.
Liberty: Enlightenment thinkers promoted individual freedoms and civil liberties, often challenging absolutist monarchies and advocating for constitutional government.
Secularism: A move away from religious explanations for human affairs, promoting a more scientific and rational worldview.
Impact of Enlightenment:
Inspired the American Revolution (1776) and the French Revolution (1789), both of which sought to implement Enlightenment ideals.
Led to the rise of democracy and the spread of republicanism, laying the intellectual foundations for modern political systems.
The French Revolution (1789–1799)
The French Revolution was a transformative event in world history that dramatically reshaped France and had lasting impacts on the rest of Europe.
Causes of the French Revolution (1789–1799)
Financial Crisis: France was in deep debt, exacerbated by involvement in the American Revolution. The monarchy’s lavish spending (especially by Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette) led to widespread discontent.
Social Inequality: The French society was divided into three estates: the clergy (First Estate), nobility (Second Estate), and commoners (Third Estate). The Third Estate, which comprised 98% of the population, was heavily taxed and had little political power.
Enlightenment Ideas: Enlightenment thinkers challenged the idea of absolute monarchy and promoted ideas of equality and democracy.
Estates-General (1789):(France)
Louis XVI called the Estates-General to address the financial crisis. The Third Estate, frustrated by its lack of power, declared itself the National Assembly, signaling the start of the Revolution.
Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789):
Revolutionaries stormed the Bastille, a symbol of royal tyranny, to free political prisoners and seize weapons.
Reign of Terror (1793–1794):
Led by Maximilien Robespierre, the radical Jacobins executed thousands, including King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette, to defend the revolution.
Rise of Napoleon
After the Revolution, France descended into chaos, and Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power, eventually declaring himself Emperor of France.
The Age of Absolutism (17th-18th Century)
Absolutism refers to the political system in which monarchs held absolute power over all aspects of government and society.
Historical Context
The Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended the Thirty Years’ War and established sovereign nation-states. It confirmed Dutch and Swiss independence and made each German prince “absolute sovereign” in his territory
britannica.com
. This set the stage for 17th-century state-building, and mark beginning of period 2.
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment (17th–18th c) was a philosophical movement (“Age of Reason”) celebrating reason, science, and progress
britannica.com
. Enlightenment ideas (natural rights, religious toleration, secular government) gradually challenged traditional authority throughout this period.
Louis XIV (1638–1715):
The Sun King of France personified absolutism. He centralized power and ruled from the palace of Versailles. Historians note he “remains the symbol of absolute monarchy of the classical age” would curb nobles, church and people power to solidify his rule
Peter the Great (1672–1725)
Russian, westernized his country. He reformed the army, built a navy, and founded St. Petersburg. Through these reforms, Russia “made incredible progress in economy, trade, education, [and] culture” and became a major European power. Absolutist, mandatory civil and millitary service regardless of social ranking.
Glorious Revolution (England, 1688–89)
Parliament deposed Catholic JamesII and invited WilliamIII and MaryII to rule. The new monarchs accepted the Declaration (later Bill) of Rights (1689), which limited royal authority (no suspending laws or maintaining a standing army without Parliament) and barred Catholics from the throne. This cemented the principle that sovereignty lay with Parliament (vindicating Locke’s ideas of government by consent) and established England as a Constitutional Monarchy
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Enlightened Absolutism (mid-18thc)
Inspired from ideas of Absolutism or the fear that people would demand Enlightenment reforms some absolute monarchs adopted Enlightenment reforms. Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and JosephII of Austria enacted legal, educational, and religious reforms inspired by philosophes, even as they retained full control
French Revolution (1789–1799)
Overthrew the Bourbon monarchy and attempted to create a republic. Britannica notes it “sought to completely change the relationship between the rulers and those they governed”. Causes included social inequality and fiscal crisis. In 1789 the National Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man, proclaiming all men free and equal with popular sovereignty. The Revolution passed through radical phases (Reign of Terror 1793–94) before moderating under the Directory.
Napoleon and the Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815):
Napoleon Bonaparte seized power from the Directory in a coup (1799) and crowned himself emperor (1804). He codified laws in the Napoleonic Code (1804), a unifying legal code that became a model for many countries. Napoleon’s campaigns (c.1800–1815) spread revolutionary reforms but also provoked coalitions of powers. Ultimately his defeat (Waterloo, 1815) led to the Congress of Vienna settlement, restoring monarchies and reaffirming the balance of power.
Mercantilism
European states sought trade surpluses and bullion to strengthen national power. Governments regulated the economy (subsidies, tariffs, monopolies) to maximize exports. Colonies were exploited for raw materials and captive markets (e.g. Navigation Acts in England). Rivalry for colonial markets and resources fueled wars (Britain vs. France, etc.)
Colonial Trade and Slavery:
A global triangular trade arose: European goods went to Africa, enslaved Africans to the Americas, and American commodities to Europe. Between 1500–1800, roughly 10–12 million Africans were sent across the Atlantic. The slave trade and plantation system (sugar, cotton, tobacco) enriched Europe but also led to Enlightenment critiques and eventual abolition movements.
Agricultural Revolution:
Improved techniques (crop rotation, enclosure of fields, selective breeding) in the 18th century greatly increased food production. For example, the four-field rotation system in England boosted yields. These changes supported population growth and freed labor for industrial activity.
