Final Review Flashcards
(131 cards)
1
Q
What is the structure of ATP like?
A
ATP has a adenine base, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups.
2
Q
How does ATP store energy?
A
It stores it in the bonds between the phosphate groups.
3
Q
How does ATP transfer energy from exergonic to endergonic processes in the cell?
A
It moves energy through the ATP cycle by releasing a phosphate group during exergonic reactions and regaining it during endergonic reactions.
4
Q
What is the relationship between exergonic and endergonic reactions in metabolism?
A
It can turn amino acids into proteins and glucose into carbon dioxide, water, and heat through the ATP cycle.
5
Q
What is an enzyme?
A
Enzymes are catalysts, they make chemical reactions easier. Each enzyme bonds with a specific substrate, enzymes are not consumed in reaction, enzymes are made out of proteins.
6
Q
What is activation energy?
A
The amount of energy needed to start a chemical reaction.
7
Q
How do enzymes lower activation energy?
A
They bind to their specific substrate.
8
Q
How is enzyme function affected by pH, temperature, and substrate concentration?
A
The optimal pH is 7, the optimal temperature is 37 degrees celsius (body temp), and the higher the substrate concentration, the better.
9
Q
How are photosynthesis and cellular respiration related?
A
The reactants for photosynthesis are the products of cellular respiration, and the products for photosynthesis are the reactants of cellular respiration.
10
Q
What types of organisms perform photoynthesis?
A
Autotrophs
11
Q
What types of organisms perform cellular respiration?
A
Autotrophs and heterotrophs
12
Q
Where in a cell does photosynthesis occur?
A
The chloroplasts
13
Q
Where in a cell does cellular respiration occur?
A
The mitochondria
14
Q
What processes occur when there is oxygen present (aerobic)?
A
Glycolysis, the link reaction, the krebs cycle, and ATP synthase
15
Q
What processes occur when there is no oxygen present (anaerobic)?
A
Glycolysis and fermentation
16
Q
How much ATP is made when there is oxygen present (aerobic)?
A
34 ATP
17
Q
How much ATP is made when there is no oxygen present (anaerobic)?
A
2 ATP
18
Q
What is the structure of a nucleotide?
A
Nitrogen base, deoxyribose sugar, and a phosphate group
19
Q
Is a nucleotide purine or pyrimidine?
A
Purine
20
Q
What are the base pairing rules?
A
A goes with T (or U), and C goes with G.
21
Q
What is the complementary sequence to ACGTTACG?
A
TGCAATGC
22
Q
What type of bind holds strands of nucleotides together?
A
Hydrogen bonds
23
Q
How is RNA different than DNA?
A
RNA has a U nucleotide instead of a T, RNA’s sugar is ribose instead of deoxyribose, and RNA has 1 strand instead of 2.
24
Q
What is the function of mRNA?
A
It contains the message code for an amino acid sequence.
25
What is the function of tRNA?
It contains anticodons that pair with mRNA codons.
26
What is the function of rRNA?
It facilitates mRNA with the tRNA codons to synthesize proteins.
27
What does it mean that DNA replication is semiconservative?
It means that each new strand is made from one of the old strands and one that is newly built.
28
What does it mean that DNA replication is antiparallel?
It means that nucleotides are added in the opposite direction of the parent strand.
29
What is the function of helicase?
It breaks the bonds between two parent strands.
30
What is the function of primase?
It adds RNA primers to some of the DNA nucleotides.
31
What is the function of DNA Polymerase III?
It adds nucleotides everywhere but where the primase is.
32
What is the function of DNA Polymerase I?
It replaces the primase with nucleotides.
33
What is the function of ligase?
It fixes breaks in the sugar phosphate backbone and glues everything together.
34
What mRNA sequence would be translated from the DNA sequence ATGCGTAGCCAT and what amino acids would come from that?
UACGCAUCGGUA, which translates into Tyrosine, Alanine, Serine, and Valine
35
What is DNA replication?
Duplicating DNA to make more strands.
36
What is transcription?
Copying parts of DNA into RNA.
37
What is translation?
Translating mRNA into codons as well as tRNA anticodons.
38
What is a mutation?
A change in the base sequence in a strand of DNA.
39
What is a point mutation?
A mutation that swaps one base and only affects one allele. There is silent (no change in codon), missense (changes one codon), and nonsense (early stop codon).
40
What is a frame-shift mutation?
A mutation that changes every allele after the mutation. Can be insertion (adding an allele) or deletion (removing an allele).
41
What happens to the surface area to volume ratio of a sphere as the radius decreases?
It increases
42
Why is the surface area to volume ratio important to cells?
The higher it is, the better the cell can exchange materials with its environment.
43
How can a cell improve its surface area to volume ratio by changing its shape?
Making parts of the cell skinnier or increasing the number of folds.
44
What cell structures are common to all cells?
Cell membrane, ribosomes, cytoplasm, and DNA.
45
What does the cell membrane do?
It serves as a barrier outside the cell and controls what gets in and out.
46
What do the ribosomes do?
They translate DNA to make proteins.
47
What does the cytoplasm do?
It facilitates the movement of molecules and organelles.
48
What does the DNA do?
It is the code that makes everything run.
49
What are some differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
Prokaryotes have no nucleus but eukaryotes do, Prokaryotes have a cell wall unlike eukaryotes, and Eukaryotes have a mitochondria unlike prokaryotes.
50
What is the nucleus?
It looks like a circle with DNA, and it stores DNA and is the location of transcription.
51
What is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
Looks like a maze with no dots, and it is where lipids and hormones are made.
52
What is the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
Looks like a maze with ribosomes, and it makes proteins.
53
What is the mitochondria?
Looks like an oval, breaks down molecules to get energy in the form of ATP.
54
What are the chloroplasts?
Looks like an oval, does photosynthesis.
55
What is the lysosome?
Looks like a circle with a membrane, breaks down unneeded proteins for recycling.
56
What is the golgi apparatus?
Looks like a blob, and it packages, tags, and moves proteins.
57
What is the central vacuole?
The biggest part of a plant cell, pushes against the cell wall.
58
How are the cell wall and the cell membrane different?
The cell wall doesn't let anything in, but the cell membrane lets some things in.
59
What is the cell membrane made of?
Proteins and lipids
60
How does the cell membrane's structure make it semi-permeable?
It is hydrophobic, so it allows some molecules in, but other can't.
61
What is the polypeptide/secretory pathway?
It is a pathway that gets proteins to where they need to go. It starts in the rough ER, moves to the golgi apparatus, then the vesicles, then to wherever it needs to go.
62
What do glycolipids and glycoproteins do?
They recognize and signal what can and can't come in the cell as well as facilitating adhesion.
63
What do phospholipids do?
They regulate passage through the cell membrane.
64
What is diffusion?
When molecules spread out to make the concentration even.
65
What is osmosis?
Diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane to dilute concentrations with high solutes.
66
What is hypertonic?
When there is a higher percent of solute than water.
67
What is hypotonic?
When there is a lower percent of solute than water.
68
What is isotonic?
When the percent of solute and water is equal.
69
What happens to an animal cell placed in a hypertonic solution?
Water leaves the cell into the solute, shrinking the cell.
70
What happens to an animal cell placed in a hypotonic solution?
Water enters the cell from the solute, expanding the cell.
71
What happens to an animal cell placed in an isotonic solution?
Nothing
72
What's the difference between passive and active transport?
Passive transport moves from high concentrations to low concentration with no help, but active transport moves from low concentration to high concentration using a protein pump.
73
What's the difference between exocytosis and endocytosis?
Exocytosis is exiting, endocytosis is entering.
74
What are the 4 main stages of mitosis?
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
75
What happens in prophase?
The chromatin condenses, the nucleus breaks down, and the spindle fibers form.
76
What happens in metaphase?
The chromosomes line up and prepare to separate.
77
What happens in anaphase?
The sister chromatids are pulled to the other side of the cell.
78
What happens in telophase/cytokinesis?
The cell splits apart and the nucleus reforms.
79
How do cyclins, CDK's, and other growth factors affect the cell cycle?
They cause the cell cycle to continue instead of going into a G0 phase.
80
What happens in the G1 phase?
The cell increases in size and prepares for DNA replication.
81
What happens in the S phase?
DNA Replication
82
What happens in the G2 phase?
The cell continues to grow and prepare for cell division.
83
What happens in mitosis?
Cell division
84
What types of cells do mitosis and meiosis make?
Mitosis makes autosomal cells, meiosis makes gametes.
85
Is the parent cell of mitosis haploid or diploid?
Diploid
86
Is the daughter cell of mitosis haploid or diploid?
Diploid
87
Is the parent cell of meiosis haploid or diploid?
Diploid
88
Is the daughter cell of meiosis haploid or diploid?
Haploid
89
How many chromosomes are in the daughter cell after mitosis?
46 chromosomes
90
How many chromosomes are in the daughter cell after meiosis?
23 chromosomes
91
How do the genes in the parent and daughter cells relate in mitosis?
They're identical
92
How do the genes in the parent and daughter cells relate in meiosis?
They're different
93
What is crossing over?
When two chromosomes pair up in prophase 1 of meiosis and exchange genes, creating variation.
94
What is independent assortment?
It is how chromosomes or tetrads can flip to either side before they separate.
95
What is random fertilization?
It is how the sperm and egg that fertilize are randomly chosen from a pool.
96
What are homologous chromosomes?
A pair of chromosomes with the same genes.
97
How many homologous chromosomes does a human have?
Human have 23 homologous chromosomes.
98
What happens during nondisjunction?
Nondisjunction is when the cells fail to properly separate, causing the cells to have the wrong number of chromosomes.
99
Where does nondisjunction occur?
During anaphase
100
What diseases or syndromes can be caused by nondisjunction?
Down syndrome, patau syndrome, and Edwards syndrome.
101
What is the difference between dominant and recessive?
Dominant only needs one allele to show the trait, recessive needs two.
102
What is the difference between alleles and genes?
A gene is a trait, an allele is a version of a gene.
103
What is the difference between homozygous and heterozygous?
Homozygous is tow of the same alleles, heterozygous is one of each allele.
104
What is the difference between phenotype and genotype?
Phenotype is the visible trait, genotype is the combination of alleles.
105
What is the difference between monohybrid and dihybrid?
Monohybrid is one allele, dihybrid is two pairs.
106
What is a test cross?
When yous cross a homozygous recessive allele with an unknown allele to find it out based on the offspring.
107
What does it mean if a trait is codominant?
When both alleles are visible in the phenotype.
108
What does it mean if a trait is polygenic?
When a trait is affected by more than one gene.
109
What does it mean if a trait is epistatic?
When one gene can hide the output of the other genes.
110
What are the ABO blood types?
The IA allele makes A antigens, the IB allele makes B antigens, and the i allele codes for no antigen.
111
How is gender determined in humans?
If there are two X chromosomes, it is female, if there is one, it's a male.
112
What is the pattern of inheritance seen with sex-linked traits?
Males pass down traits to females, and females pass them down to males.
113
How does a male inherit a sex-linked recessive disease?
It inherits it from the female.
114
How does a female inherit a sex-linked recessive disease?
It inherits it from both of the parents.
115
What can you use to determine if a trait is dominant or recessive using a pedigree?
If the trait skips a generation.
116
What can you use to determine if a trait is sex-linked or autosomal using a pedigree?
If males are affected more.
117
What is natural selection?
When a trait is proved to be successful because it survives while less fit traits die out.
118
What are the five fingers of evolution?
Population shrinking, non-random mating, mutations, movement, and natural selection.
119
What is a species?
A population whose members can interbreed and produce viable, fertile offspring.
120
Why is reproductive isolation vital to speciation?
It separates the gene pool and keeps the species from each other.
121
What is geographic isolation?
When species are separated by an obstacle (mountain range, ocean, etc).
122
What is ecological isolation?
When species have different niches.
123
What is temporal isolation?
When species are out at different times.
124
What is behavioral isolation?
When species have different mating behaviors.
125
What is mechanical isolation?
What species don't have the right parts to mate with each other.
126
What is gametic isolation?
When species don't have the right gametes to mate.
127
What are homologous structures?
Structures inherited from a common ancestor that serve different functions (divergent evolution).
128
What are analogous structures?
Structures not inherited from a common ancestor that serve different function (convergent evolution).
129
What are vestigial structures?
A homologous structure that no longer serves a purpose.
130
How does the genetic code of living organisms provide evidence of relatedness or common ancestry?
The less differences there are, the closer related the species are.
131
How can you determine relatedness from a phylogenetic tree?
The more common traits two organisms share, the more related they are.
